EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT OP THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE OF THE STATE OF MICHIGAN, FOR THE Year Endlnfif A-ugfust 31st, ISTO. LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN LANSING: W. S. GEORGE & CO., STATE PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 1880. UBRaRY ^JEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN SHU IBMtb 0f H^t'mUim. Hon. HEZEKIAH G. WELLS, of Kalamazoo, PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD. Hon. J. WEBSTER CHILDS, of Ypsilanti, VICE PRESIDENT. Hon. GEORGE W. PHILLIPS, of Romeo. Hon. ERANKLIN WELLS, of Constantine. Hon. MILTON J. GARD, of Voliuia. Hon. henry G. REYNOLDS, of Old Mission. CHAS. M. CROSWELL, Governor of the State, Ex Offlcio. T. C. ABBOT, President Agricultural College, " ROBERT G. BAIRD, Secretary. EPHRAIM LONGYEAR, of Lansing, Treasurer. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY new'^YORK BOTANICAL OF THE GARDEN STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Agkicultueal College, ) Lansing, August 31st, 187 9. \ To Chas. M. Croswell, Governor of the State of Micliigan : I have the honor to submit herewith to your Excellency, as required by Statute, the accompanying Report for the year ending August 3ist, 1879, with Supplementary papers. Kespectfully yours, ROBERT G. BAIRD, Secretary of Mich. State Board of Agriculture. COLLEGE ACCOUNTS FOR THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 31st, 1879. SECRETARY'S ACCOUNT. Da. To balance on hand Sept. 1st, 1878 $16 95 State Treas'r on account of current expense appropriation. §4.023 40 interest 16,602 02 20,625 42 To special appropriations for buildings and repairs $750 00 lil.niry 500 00 f;ii-ni (ieparttnent 1.000 00 Farmers' Institute... 107 39 insurance 600 00 3.047 39 To receipts from College on account of farm dopartment 4,881 64 horticultural department 1,860 14 mechauical department 72S 46 apiar}' 150 05 sales of PwaiHi) lands 712 22 library (books sold) 116 28 chemicals (R.C. K.) 37 53 refunded to general account 1 63 account of buildings. 10 insurance. 60 00 boarding hall (exclusive of stu- dents) 816 03. To receipts from students oti account of College dues — Diplomas $150 00 Chemicals 705 55 Incidentals 1,1-12 88 Room rent 577 50 Matriculation fees... 440 00 Special examinations 72 50 Board 8.872 08 12,021 11 §45,080 95 Cr. By ca'h paid K. Longyear, treasurer §45,082 61 To balance §1 06 §-15,082 01 §-15,0^2 61 8 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY OF TREASURER'S ACCOUNT. Dk. To balance Sept. 1st, 1878 $881 37 cash of Secretary and State Treasurer 45,082 Gl Cr. By warrants paid ^45,249 72 balance to new account Aug. 31st, 1879 714 26 §45,903 98 $45,9G3 98 The above is a correct summary of my account as treasurer of the College. E. LONGYEAR, Treasurer. SUMMARY OF WARRANT ACCOUNT. The warrants drawn during the fiscal year have been charged to the several funds as follows : Current expenses — Expense of State Board 9430 13 President's office — Stationery, postage, etc §78 29 Sunday services 135 00 213 29 Secretary's office — Stationery, postage, etc |202 93 Printing 236 75 Advertising 20 30 459 98 Advances of students refunded 847 38 Improvement and care of grounds 99164 Library — current expense 139 79 Laboratory — current expense 804 49 Salaries 17,114 35 Mechanical department 940 16 Current expense — incidentals 765 69 State Fair (1878) 50 33 College Hall 122 35 Apiary 39 31 Fencing 86 51 Armory 27 43 Board of employes 87 68 Society room 100 00 Farm department (current expense) 2,720 85 Horticultural department (current expense) 1,663 43 Boarding Hall 13,402 82 §41,007 62 Special appropriations — Buildings and repairs §1,031 01 Library 510 17 Museum 91 53 Chemical department 175 00 • Farm department 693 46 Horticultural department - 200 40 River improvement 72 66 Insurance 583 50 Institutes 211 84 Engineering; department 672 53 ° 4,242 10 §45,249 72 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. DEPARTMENT ACCOUNTS. FARM DEPARTMENT In Account with Agricultural College. Dr. To cash disbursements on account of current expense — Cattle §255 77 Hogs 34 67 Sheep 21 38 Labor 1,01 9 29 Lumber 12 08 Office 44 45 Implemen ts 117 02 Kepairs of implements 101 71 Team 85 47 Seeds 39 57 Fertilizers 8 75 Farmhouse 713 86 Buildings 192 02 Drains 16 20 Fencing 12 75 Toll and miscellaneous 45 86 Total $2,720 85 Special appropriation 693 46 Students' labor 2,480 00 Cr. ' By cash receipts on account of— Cattle : !^1,549 60 Hogs 256 43 Sheep 499 13 Grain 934 91 Team 186 85 Produce 212 88 Labor 503 58 Fertilizers 86 Implements 47 33 Wood 161 75 Farmhouse 526 32 Increase of inventory 243 53 Balance 771 14 #5,894 31 $5,894 31 HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT In Account with Agricultural College. Dr. To cash disbursements on account of current expense — Greenhouse $407 16 Labor 218 00 Office 37 66 Team 414 37 Vegetable garden 52 23 Grounds 90 12 Orchard 55 44 Miscellaneous 160 81 10 STATE BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. Iinplcmeuts 31^8 47 Seeds 40 fJniprrv 14 27 Fertilizers ^0 18 Ice 24 30 Fenci iijj 3 20 Arboretum G 73 Tot.ll §1,C63 43 Special :ippr()i>ri;itions 200 40 Stiideiils' J:ibor 1,353 52 Decrease of inventory 139 80 Cr. By cash receipts on account of— Greenhouse Vegetal)le ^''^I'den Orchard Labor Team 1 . . . Grounds Shop Fertilizers Vineyard Ice Balance S3.3o7 15 §332 07 2C1 30 73 13 644 G5 451 OS 1 00 4 OG 18 00 1 00 48 8G 1,491 01 $3,357 15 LIBUAUY^ 171. Account xoilh Agricultural College. Dk. To cash disbursements — on account of current expense $139 79 special appropriations 510 17 students' labor 70 76 Ck. By ca=h receipts — saleofbooks $116 28 i ncrease to balance G04 44 $720 72 $720 72 CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT In Account with Agricultural College. Dr. To cash disbursements on account of special appropriations... $175 00 cash — current expense 804 49 balance. 222 26 Ck. By cashof E. C, Kedzie ... $37 53 stiiileiits 765 55 increase of in\eutor3' 398 67 $1,201 75 $1,201 75 COLLEGE ACCOUNTS. 11 MUSEUM In Account xcith Agricultural College. Dr. T To cash disbursements on account of special appropriation $91 53 students' labor 44 Or. By increase of invenrory (by purchase) $90 00 increase to balance 7 97 ^97 97 897 97 APIARY In Account with Agricultural College. Dr. To cash disbursements $39 31 students' labor 31 28 decrease of inventory 21 75 balance 67 71 Cr. By cash §150 05 rn BOARD. §150 05 lloO 05 MECHANICAL DEPARTMKXT In Account with Agricultural College. Dr. To cash disbursements $940 IG students' labor 130 GO decrease of inventory 59 31 Cr. By cash §728 46 balance ._ 401 61 $1,130 07 Sl.l;?0 07 The summary warrant account shows the disbtirsements on account of board, and the Sjcretary's account sliows tlie uniount of casli received from students on account of board till August 31s;;. Students are boarded at cost. The cash received from them on account of board is simply the balance which they are iiulebted to board after being credited with the amount of their hibor. Board, including fuel, cost during the autumn term of 1878, $i.4U; spring term of 187'J, *:i.05; summer term of 1879, §"^.1U. An average for the year of two dollars thirty-eight and one-third cents per week. 12 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. STUDENTS' LABOR. The several departtneiits liave been charged, and the students have been credited. dnrini Statu insiitiition by our sons and dati_<;litcr.* : tliat the rommittcc 1»(; composed of tlirei' or more meiiiliers Peb'Ctcd from the executive committee and tiie State Graiij^e oHioers. and required to report aninially. We advise sudi committeo be made uj) fiom tlu^se olhcers, ;is they only hold over from year to year, and therefore the only ones from whom a report could be assured. Messrs. Ilolloway, Luce and Chiltls were appointed to constitute tliis com- mittee on the College, and the coniinittee has visited the College during the year. Meanwhile tlie committee on Education reported that the College had proved a success, recommended tlie establishment of a Veterinary department, and th.e adoption of I'csolutions asking the Legislature to make a liberal ap[)ropria- tion for buildings for the admission of ladies into the College. Thus the Farmers' Institutes, the Agricultural Society, the Grange and the State Pomological Society, although no special notice of it has been made in the foregoing remarks, are all helping the College to extend its influence among the practical farmers of the State, while the Alumni, by their outspoken at- tachment to the College, give us great encouragement in our work. 9 T. C. ABBOT. REPORT OF THE PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE AND LIBRARIAN. To the President of the College : The following report is meant to include a brief mention of all the work done under my immediate supervision during the year ending August 31st, 1879: During the autumn term of 1 878 I gave instruction to the Junior Class in English Literature by a course of fifty daily lectures with daily reviews. The usual ground, including history and relations of the English language, outline of history of literature in England by epochs and ages, and biographical sketches of the leading authors from Chaucer to Burns, with critical re- marks upon selections from each author studied. Tiie course was too brief to be more than an introduction to standard literature, and but brief notices of the writers of this century in England and America accompanied an out- line of more modern cliaractcristics and fame. Chambers' Cyclopoedia of Literature was an eliicient aid to the lectures and the criticism. Tlie class numbered '^7, of whom 21 pa>sed the linal examination at the close of the term. Of six who left to teach before tinishing the course, four have since passed examination ; the others have not yet returned to College. The Freshman Class with [)ersons in select couises made two classes in English Composition, one of which numbered 40 and the other 27. The course, during eleven weeks of the autumn term, embraced in Hart's Rhetoric the subjects of punctuation, style, invention and varieties of compo- sition, with weekly exercises in essay writing. The essays were carefully revised under my direction with esi)ecial care for accuracy, neatness aud DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 27 method in expression of thought. In this I received efficient aid from Mr. Eugene Davenport of the Senior class, who was assigned to this work under my supervision. Of the G7 members of this chiss five left before tlie close of the term, and four failed to pass the final examination. Two of these have since taken a special examination and passed. Dui'ing the spring term I taugiit the Senior class in the usual course in Fairchild's Moral Pliilosophy. The class numbered 28, one of whom left on account of sickness, and tiie rest finished the course successfnlly. A six weeks' course of lectures to the Seniors in political economy com- pletes my classroom instruction outside of rhetorical exercises. In this study the short period of time devoted to it compels haste in both lectures and re- views. This year I adopted the plan of giving one hour each week to a review of the four lectures given upon the previous days. This in some respects was more satisfactory than the usual brief daily review. The class numbered twenty-five, one of whom left on account of sickness, and twenty-four passed the final examination. The time devoted to this study in the course seems too limited to both professor and students. The larger part of my work of instruction has been devoted to the rhetorical exercises. In these I liave had charge of seventy-one Freshmen, fifty-three Sophomores, and twenty-six Seniors, all of whom I have met once each week in five classes. I have also given from two to five hours each week to re- hearsals preparatory to final delivery before the classes or the body of students. The Freshmen have had essays and declamation, in alternation, one every three weeks. The Sophomores have had essays and declamations alternating every two weeks during the spring term, and original declamations every four weeks during the summer term. During the autumn term of 1878 they were under the instruction of Professor Cook. The Seniors have had exercises in select reading, in essay writing, in scientific exposition and in analysis. Each has prepared and delivered four orations before tlie body of students in the Cliapel. During tlie summer term I luive given a series of lectures upon sub- jects directly connected with riietoric in practice. All the orations and original declamations and most of the essays have passed under my criticism before being presented: a few have been accepted and afterward criticised. In most cases criticism of the orations is accom- panied with personal explanation of reasons for any change, and suggestions as to tlie l''gic of the thought and correctness of statements as well as proper sources of materials. All this work I have found very wearing, and yet I have been grateful to yourself and the Board for such an arrangement as, by re- lieving me ixoxw the teaching of French, permitted me to take the task in my own hands, I have long felt the necessity of giving more continuous attention to the drill in English composition and English speaking which must hold so important a place in every course of study. I have given but one of the regular Wednesday lectures this year, having given place once to a number of Senior orations which had been delayed by various circumstances beyond their appointed time. Other ini[)ortaiit works of the College has fallen upon me as Chairman of the Committee upon Examinations. This has included, beside my s'lare iir the examination of a[)plicants for admission. coni|)ilation of statistics, and re- ports, arraiigLMiient for all select courses, and preparation of sciiemes f jr class exercises and examinations. It has naturally, too, brought many requests for advice in regard to plans of individual students. In the work of special com- mittees I have had my share of the burden. 28 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. I)urin2: three ^veeks of the sumnier term (the president having leave of ab- sence), 1 had the general duties of the executive officer, and throughout the year in temporary absences of the president the students were referred to me as substitute. In the \vinter Farmers' Institutes my part was general oversight of the or- sranization of the one at Flint, and an address at Flint and Ciiarlotte. All other work away from the College I have felt obligedto decline. At the Col- lege I have kept my place as teacher in the Sunday school with but one ab- sence, and have read two short papers before the Natural History .Society. Incidentally, under the advice of the committee of the Board of Agricult- ure upon buildings, etc., I have given some considerable attention to the plan of the dwelling now in process of erection. Extra attention was made neces- sary bv the dilKculty of providing sufficient accommodation with the funds at disposal of the Board, and my personal interest as the probable occupant of the dwelling designated me for the task. THE COLLEGE LIBRARY. The usual routine of work in the College Library has occupied four differ- ent Seniors for a trifle over 800 hours. The books have been kept in excel- lent order and the library has been much frequented during the daily opening from 4 to 6 P. M. On Saturday the hours of opening have been changed to the morning from 10 to 12, and afternoon from 5 to 6. This seems to accom- modate the students better than the old plan of opening from 3 to 6 P. M. The whole number of books taken from the library during the year is 1,835, classed as follows: Agricultural 132, Horticultural 34, Scientific 274, Bio- graphical 110, Historical 14G, Fiction 292, Miscellaneous 847. Consultation of books in the Library is more frequent as the works of reference are multi- plied. The Library has been increased by the purchase of 119 bound volumes and the binding up of 167 volumes of periodicals. Donations have included 81 bound volumes and 77 pamphlets besides some seventy periodicals, all of which are acknowledged in the Secretary's list of donations. The periodicals taken upon subscription have been as follows : Atlantic Monthly. Harper's Magazine. North American Review. International Review. Blackwood's Magazine, (Reprint.) British Quarterly Review, " Loudon " " " AVestminster Review, " Edinburgh Review, ** Contemporary Review. The London Times. The Nation. Detroit Post and Tribune, Daily. Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine. Engineering (London.) The Country Gentleman. American Agriculturist. American Stockman. American Journal of Science. DEPAKTMENT KEPORTS. 29 American jSTaturalist. American Bee Journal. American Quarterly Microscopical Journal. Poultry World. Vick's'Monthly. Manufacturer and Builder. Canadian Entomologist. Nature. Agricultural Gazette. Live Stock Journal. Gardener's Chronicle. The Garden. Florist and Pomologist. Chemical News. Journal of Ciieniical Society. Quarterly Journal of Science. Popular Science Keview. Recently have been added reprints of the Fortniglitly Review and the Nine- teenth Century. The purchase of books included 90 back volumes of the North American Review, completing the set with the exception of the first nine volumes. Other purchases were mostly in the department of engineering and architecture. By favor of the State Board of Auditors cases from the old State Library were placed at our disposal. Of these twenty-one have found place in our Library, adding convenience and ornament. This necessitated a re-arrange- ment of the books and the newspaper desks and tables. At the same time the most frequented parts of the floor were covered with matting as recom- mended last year. The general effect of these improvements is pleasing to all. The expenditures for the year amount to $649.96 classified as followsj f ^( t- ■ Books for the library SIGO 01 Periodicals ]48 13 Binding 193 12 Postage and exchange 10 65 Express and freight S 75 _ Stationary, blanks, etc -. 5 987 Furniture and matting 54 80 Labor in cleaning, etc 3 48 Books to be resold 05 04 For the general account of the Library I may refer to the financial report of the Secretary of the College. But little work has been done upon the catalogue of subjects proposed last year, chiefly for want of time on the part of the librarian to give needed over- sight. A rough draft has been made of an index to biography, as a beginning from which to advance. Tliis Avas hindered by the additional work caused by the improvements mentioned above. This draft should be put into shape suitable for use, and a competent person should be employed to continue the work, especially into the agricultural and scientific miscellany. Hoping that more attention can be given to the growth and use of the Library hereafter, I respectfully submit the above report. GEO. T. FAIRCIIILU, Professor of Eng. Lit. and Librarian. 1 1' 30 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. State Aouicultural College, ) Lansing, Midi,., November 18, 1879. J To tliG President of the College : Having accepted a call to tlic presidency of tlio State Agricultural College of Kansiis, I beg leave to subniic the following supplementary report for the term just closing. During this term I have given instruction to the Senior, Junior and Sopho- more chisscs in Khetorical exercises, meeting them in four divisions weekly. The whole number upon my rolls is 110, and tlie whole number of exercises, including 25 orations, is 275. The commencement exercises have also been prepared under my oversight, involving much consultation and many rehear- sals with the 16 exercises presented. The Freshman class in composition, numbering 65, has recited in two divis- ions. Each member has presented nine written exercises for correction, mak- ing a sort of Aveekly examination upon the subjects passed over. The burden of these exercises, — more than 600 essays, — has been lightened by the aid kindly ren- dered by Mr. Louis G. Carpenter of the Senior class, working in my presence and nnder my advice. The class was examined on the 13th of November, and the report is now in the hands of the secretary. The Juniors have had a voluntary class in Shakespeare to which I have read the Merchant of Venice with much interest on their part and much pleasure on mine. The Library remains in much the condition described at the close of the College year, 1878-9. The work of re-arrangement has been perfected, and the new classification has been transferred to the catalogue. Few purchases have been made, — 14 volumes in all. Donations have been eigiit pamphlets, four bound volumes and a miscellaneous collection of agricultural papers, most of which are duplicates of what we before possessed. I have been absent from duty one week, during which my class in composi- tion was taken by Professor Cook. In closing this report of the last term's work in a period of fifteen full Col- lege years, I cannot refrain from expressing satisfaction at the growth in strength and favor made by the College in these years. 1 go away feeling a faith in the good work of this institution, vv'hich is to be my main support in the new field of labor, and my thoughts will still turn to my long-time associ- ates here for advice and encouragement in similar cares elsewhere. I can- not feel that I am diminishing the influence of this College by carrying the same spirit to a sister institution in greater need ; if it seemed so, I should hesitate. With many wishes for prosperity in these coming years, this last of many reports is Respectfully submitted, GEORGE T. FAIRCHILD. \ • DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 31 REPORT OF THE PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY ANO ENTOMOL- OGY, ETC. Agricultural College, ) Lansing, Mich.. Se2)temher 30, 1879. \ To the President of the College: I submit the following report for the year ending September 30, 1879 : INSTRUCTION. In the fall of 1878 the Sophomore class completed the study of Geometry under my charge. They had already completed eight sections of Olney's Geometry under the supervision of Prof. R. C. Carpenter. The class num- bered seventy-eight, and recited in two divisions. Of this number fifty-seven completed tiie course and fifty-two passed the examination. I also gave instruc- tion to the same class in Rhetoricals. Each of the two divisions met me for one hour each week. Each student prepared two essays and two declamations, which were read or delivered before the class. I also gave the usual course of lectures on Human and Comparative Anatomy to the Senior class. There were twenty-one members in the class. In the spring term, thirty-one of the Freshman class, all those who could uot pass a satisfactory examination, pursued the study of book-keeping under my direction for three weeks. Mayhew's text-book was used, and all the stu- dents of the class passed upon examination. The Senior class, numbering twenty-seven, completed the usual course in Physiology. Dalton's text-book was used. During the summer term one division of the Sophcmore class, numbering twenty-four members, completed the subject of Mechanics of Solids, and Mechanics of Liquids to specify gravity, as given in Peck's text-book, which was used. All, with one exception, passed the examination. The subject of Zoology occupied the Senior class for six weeks. The class numbered twenty- three. Nicholson's text-book was u?ed. The time for this study is too short by half. Geology was studied for the balance of the term. The class num- bered twenty-two. Dana's Geology was used as a text-book. The work of instruction for the year has been pleasant, as the students have shown a very satisfactory and commendable energy, and have made correspond- ing progress in their studies. MUSEUM. The General Museum has made considerable growth during the year. Addi- tions have been made botli by donation — see list appended to tiiis report — and by purchase. Among the latter, several skeletons, an ornithorhynchus, and several marine zoological specimens have been of signal service in giving in- struction in my department. It gives me pleasure to state that many rare and valuable donations have been made to the Museum by Alumni of the College. The Museum is again much crowded for room. 32 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICl'LTURE. Tin: APiAUY. The experiment of wintering bees by burying Ihein, did not result as favor- ably as it has in the past. Half of those buried were put into the ground in early October, the other half in early Novetnber. All were removed the first of Ajn-il. One-half of each lot were dead. Tlie bees of the lot which were buried in October that lived, came out the best of any in the Apiary. One of our colonies that was given much unsealed honey had the dysentery very badly. All ihe others, except one in the cellar, and three out doors, which were ])acked in boxes, came through the winter in fine condition. The four, owing to a mistake the previous autumn, died of starvation. They had abundance of honey, but it was so scattered that the bees could not reach it during the long cold, and so perished. SPUING DWINDLING. During the spring I had the charge of some very Aveak colonies. These were kept confined to a very small space, by use of a division-board, so that they covered the combs at all times, were fed a litle daily, were kept covered by warm quilts, and by May 15tli were strong colonies. I believe the above course is the sure preventive of spring dwindling. Early in the season I invented a new feeder, the division-board feeder, which we have tried the season through and find it to be very admirable. This will be described and figured in the report of the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture for the current year. We commenced the season with nine colonies. AVe have sold five colonies, and now have seventeen. We have taken about four hundred lbs. of extracted honey, and about fifty lbs. of comb honey. The season has been the poorest I ever knew. The wiiite clover season was fair, since which time, owing to the drouth, the bees have hardly gathered enough for their own supplies. I have had to rely wholly upon student labor to aid in caring for the bees. This requires that I give my time, during both summer vacations, almost wholly to the apiary. The student who has assisted me the past summer, Mr. 0. B. Charles, has been most faithful and efficient. OTHER WORK. I have acted as Superintendent of the College Sabbath School, which is un- der the auspices of the Christian Union for the entire year. During the past winter I took part in the Farmer's Institutes at Iloweil and Centreville, and gave aid to tlie local committee in arranging for the last mentioned meeting. At the December meeting of the State Pomological Society, I made a report as Entomologist of the association. I also wrote a paper for tlie February meeting of the same society. I gave an address before the State Bee Keepers' Association at their annual meeting at Grand Kapids. I have attended, helped to organize, and lectured before three district associations of bee keepers; one at Carson, one at Howell, and one at Lansing. All of these societies are large and active. I made an exhibit of apparatus belonging to the College Apiary, at all of these meetings. The past winter, the first three editions of my Manual of the Apiary being exhausted, I partly revised and added an appendix of twenty-five pages for the fourth edition, which appeared in May. DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 33 The correspondence of my department continues to increase, and becomes more and more a weiglity task. Several times the past summer, I have liad over fifty letters of inquiry per week. EespectfuUy submitted, A. J. COOK, Prof, of Entomoh(jxj and Zoology, Curator of the Museum, and Ajnarist. EEPORT OF THE PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND HORTICULTURE. To the President of the State Agricultural College: The following is a brief report of the teaching and other work done in my department for the College year ending September 30, 1879: My report has been so full for the last three years tliat it seems unnecessary to go much into detail except to notice some additions, improvements, or new experiments. BOTANY. During half of the autumn term the Seniors were daily engaged in vegetable physiology, making notes and drawings with the aid of compound microscopes. Some lectures were given, and some attention was paid to our best books on botany and on the microscope. The class numbered thirty-one, and for most of the time was divided into three sections on account of the small size of the room. For nine weeks of the spring term and all of the summer term the members of the Freshman class had daily instruction in this subject. The lessons as- signed were much like those so fully described in my former reports. The class was divided into two sections, each numbering a little over forty mem- bers. Written examinations were given with questions similar in character to those previously printed in my reports. At the close of the second term each student presented a thesis on some topic which he had investigated. Each was told where or shown where to find speci- mens for study in the vegetable garden, wild garden, flower garden, or in the fields and waste places. To increase the interest in this work, credit was given for it equal to one-fifth of all the botany of the term. The theses were written on uniform paper with view to binding in a volume. I am much gratified with this part of the work. Some of the discoveries, so far as I know, were new to science, and nearly everything was new to the members of the class. The students enjoyed this and generally felt that they were doing good work in thus learning how to observe and experiment. As a child is pleased with the first steps it ventures to take, so a student feols that lie is gaining power in making original investigations. y/Y Tlie topics given were sucli as follows : "How do insects beluive on a certain species of plant, and what kind of in- sects visit the plants?" "How are some certain plants fertilized by the wind?" "How do humming birds work on flowers, and on what species?" "How do some plants twine or climb?" "How do certain flowers change the size, length or shape of their parts as they develop to insure cross fertiliza- 5 r 34 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. tion?" "What is the relative order of development of the stamens and pistils of many plants of Indian corn, and liow many days do tliey vary?" " IIow docs doildur behave as a parasite?" " Study cleistogamons flowers of a violet." "Study the shape of all parts of a flower of the common pea, from a small bud to a full-blown flower." "For what do ants visit plants, and. how do they behave?" LANDSCAPE GARDENIKO. The usual time of half a term was occupied by the Seniors in this study. Some lectures were given, and some use was made of Kemp's text-book. Lists of trees and shrubs were made out and much was learned by studying the beautiful specimens which are found, in great variety on the lawn and. in the arboretum of the College. nORTICULTUKE. On account of a change in time for this class, no instruction was given dur- ing the year which just now closes. For the manner of giving this instruction the reader is referred to my lecture at Farmers' Institutes. The lecture is printed in the last part of this volume. HISTORY. Again, and probably for the last time, it has fallen to my lot to teacli the Freshman in History. The members of the class seemed interested in the subject. The class was divided into two sections, and recited in the autumn term, making use of Swinton's outlines. EXPERIMENTS AND OTHER ITEMS. For accounts of these, see my lecture given at tlie Farmers' Institutes. This lecture may be found in the back part of this volume. Mr. F. A. Gulley, foreman of the Horticultural Department, has given some account of experiments with beets and strawberries. KespectfuUy submitted, W. J. BEAL, Professor of Botany and Horticulture. KEPORT OF THE PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE. To the President of the Michigan State Agricultural College : The following report of the Department of Agriculture in our College is submitted for your approval. It covers the current year ending August 31, 1879. The year opened with prosperity, although there were many changes noted in the manner of keeping the accounts of the department, which will be noticed in their place. INSTRUCTION. During the first term I was called upon to give instruction to the class in French. Tlic class was large and was consequently divided into two sections, thus causing two hours of each forenoon to be devoted to class-room work. The chi?s did creditably, considering the amount of time I had to devote to their work. DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 35 The spring term was consumed in giving a course of lectures to tlie Fresh- men class, nearly three weeks of the time being consumed in work in the yards studying the points of the various breeds of cattle owned on the farm. The chiss showed much interest in the course. During the summer term I gave the Senior class a course of lectures some- what similar to the one given to the Freshmen, and the additional work on stock-breeding and rotation of crops. The class numbered 22, and gave me their undivided attentiou from first to last. INSTITUTES. In the regular work of the Faculty I was assigned the Howell Institute to make arrangements for, and also to attend the one at Centreville. These I attended, and also the one at Charlotte, by request of Prof. Beal. I also attended an extra or local Institute at Hudson, and a Grange Institute at Mason, at all of which I lectured once and at several places twice. In addition to this I have met with the Ingham Farmers Club, with the Marshall and De Witt Granges, and lectured several times before Capital Grange at Lansing, Mich. These latter were not required, but I have accepted from nrgent invitation, and feeling that I ought in all places to work for the farm- ers of the State of Michigan, and for the good of the farmers' College. EXPERIMENTS. The experiments for this year, 1879, are only partly completed and the full results cannot be given. Those in relation to wheat, however, can be given in full. On account of the severe attacks of the Hessian fly during the spring of 1878 (see Report 1877 supplement), I sowed several plats of Clawson wheat with the same conditions surrounding them, as far as could be seen, except time of sowing, and the plats were watched for results of the work of the Hes- sian fly. Plats were sown as follows, viz. : on Sept. 6th, 9th, 11th, 13th, 16th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 27th, 30th, and Oct. 2d and 5ch. On Oct. 22d these plats were visited by Prof. Cook and myself in company. A tiiorough search showed that larvss of Hessian fly were deposited in every plat sown before Sept 24th, the number found in plats sown Sept. 18th and 21st being very few. In the field adjoining wheat sown Sept. 18th showed 1 to five larvae in many stools. I also found larvse in nearly all plats of different varieties of wheat sown adjacent to these plats sown at different dates. On March 31st, I again visited these plats for the purpose of recording ob- servations as to how these plats, sown at different dates, had stood the winter. At that time the plats sown Sept. 13th and 16th looked the best and seemed strongest and most vigorous. Next to these Avere those sown respectively on Sept. 18th and 6th and 9th. I might remark here that the two plats sown on the 6th and 9th came up at the same time on account of the excessive dry- ness of the soil on the 6th, and a subsequent warm shower on the 9th, just after the latter plat was sown. The varieties that were sown this year were, Clawson, Deihl, Treadwell, Arnold's Gold Medal, Mich. Wick, Golden Straw, Tappahannock, Silver Chaff, Jennings White, Armstrong, Powers, Lincoln (badly mixed), Lancaster, Velvet Chaff, kentucky, Louisiana, Wliite Rogers, Hert's White, Post, Trump, Victoria, Rough Chaff, Australian (seed badly eaten by weevil), Asiatic, White Rose, Shaffer, Grecian White (failure), Buckeye, Amber, Shumaker, Fultz and Muskingum. 36 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Red Wheats. Red I^Iay, Mediterranean, Arnold's Ilybrid, Nursery, Red Russian, Dott and Lammas. Hyhrids. Armstrong and Lancaster, Deilil and Lancaster, Deihl and Amber, Arm- strong and White Amber, Deihl and Egyptian Red, Deiiil and Treadwell, Arm- strong, Deilil and Treadwell, Clawson and Deihl (the latter cross-fertilized bv direction of Prof. Beal in 187S), Asiatic and Gold Medal (cross-fertilized as above). Of these single varieties several did well. I will mention particularly the Clawson, Deihl, Treadwell, Tappahannock, Silver Chaff, Jennings' White, and Arnold's Gold Medal, among the white wheats; the Fultz and Shumaker, of the amber varieties ; Russian Red, Arnold's Hybrid and Mediteranean, among the red wheats. The hybrids all did fairly well ; the cross between Deihl and Treadwell giving a nice plump wheat of fine appearance. Straw strong, and stood up well. The crosses with the Lancaster as one foundation seem to promise most uniformly good results. The Lancaster is of itself a good strong variety of wheat, a good yielder and a thrifty grower. Heads of Wheat. Three heads of wheat were sown with the grains in the same relative posi- tion as in the head, each grain being sown by itself and eight inches from its neighboring kernel. This was done in order to notice the difference of growth, yield, etc., of grains in different portions of the head. The heads were harvested and the number produced by each grain carefully counted, their total length measured, the total grains produced estimated very closely by counting the ranks of kernels. The longest head measured and recorded, and in two of the heads the number of grains of wheat counted in the longest head produced by each stool of wheat. The following table of averages was obtained by taking the upper ^, the lower \ and the middle ^ of the head as sown. Head No. 1. Upper X Middle X Lower J^ Head No. 2. Upper K Middle }^ Lower }i Head No. 3 Upper M Middle V, Lower U Average No. Ht-ads per StooL Average No. Grains per Stool. Average Total Length of Head, ditto. Av. Longest Head, ditto. Average Grains Longest Heads. Total of Green or Blasted Heads. No. Grains. 3 13-14 6X 7 5-19 240 13-14 248 21-22 296 16-19 14 11. 56 23 65-176 26 27-33 4 13.56 4 83.176 4 15-19 48 6-7 52 X 54 7-19 7 32 24 5)4 5 7-16 5 4-7 193 231 214 X 18 13-16 25 85.128 24 Ji 4 9.16 4 29-64 4 37-56 11 13 8 y 6 4-9 9 7-31 9 K 283 % 378 2-31 354 5-7 23 y, 33 25.124 32 55-56 4 7-36 4 21 C2 4 11-14 42 % 47 8-31 54 3-7 o 6 10 DEPAKTMENT KEPORTS. 37 SUPERPHOSPHATE ON "WHEAT. The following experiment was tried with superphospate on wheat, viz. : four acres were selected in the west central part of field No. G, where the soil was very uniform, and No. 1 was sowni to wheat with the fertilizer drilled in with the wheat at the rate of 2G0 lbs. per acre. No. 2 was sown with the super- phosphate broadcast over the surface of the ground, but sown at the same time the wheat was drilled (the drill sowing both) and at the same rate. No 3 was sown to wheat without fertilizer, and No. 4 by its side. The following was the result of the experiment : No. 1. No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Wheat, lbs. Straw, lbs. 1.631.'^ 2.272K 1,944>^ 2,545>^ 1,953^^ 1,702^ 2,()65Ji 2,784M Total, lbs. 3,904 4,490 3,656 4,850 The plats dressed with the phosphates show quite a large increase of straw in proportion to wlieat produced. While this experiment did not produce flattering results, I believe it to be a good dressing and fertilizer for land that will not produce over 10 to 15 bushels per acre. Many questions having been asked in Institutes and by correspondence in regard to the value of salt as a fertilizer, and especially as we have refuse salt from the Saginaw Valley almost at our doors, I resolved to try sowing salt on wheat in spring and note the result. I therefore selected a portion of field No. 6, east part, where several persons assured me no one could detect any varia- tion by the eye on two or three acres of wheat. Eight plats of four square rods each were selected and staked out. These plats were in size as one to four in respect to breadth and length. On May 8 salt was sown on all the odd num- bered plats at the rate of 200 lbs per acre. The weather was very dry and the fertilizer lay on the ground undissolved nearly 18 days before rain came to dissolve it ; so I am not sure that best results were reached. The result was as follows : Wheat, lbs. .straw, lbs. Total, lbs. No. 1 40X 3S 39K 43;^ 38 46 39 71X 6 IX 62 68X 71>^ 57 62 85 112 No. 2 102 No. 3 lOO No. 4 108 No. 5 115 No. 6 No. 7 95 103 No. S 124 I should hope to sec this repeated with the amount of salt divided and one- 38 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. half sown in fall, and the remninder in tlie early spring: at least as soon as April 1. I hardly regard the test this season as a strictly fair one. UPLAND RICE. I have also sown a variety of rice known as upland rice on loamy soil to see how it would do in our climate. Jt has grown well tims far (Aug. 1st). The seed was sown May 9th and treated simihir to spring wheat as was ordered in the printed directions. (Since badly dried up, Sept. 1st, 1879.) PLASTER OR GYPSUM ON CORN. The experiment with plaster as a fertilizer for corn was continued this year as a means of comparison! with the two preceding years. The plats this year were in field No. 9. As the season of growth is not passed the result cannot be published. EXPERIMENTAL GRASSES. Plat No. 1 — Timothy (Phleuni Pratense) and Foul Meadow (Poa Serotina) Plat No. 2 — Timothy and Blue Grass (Poa Prsetensis). Plat No. 3 — Timothy and Orchard Grass (Dastylus Gloruerata). Plat No. 4 — Timothy and Red Top (Agrostis Vulgaris). Of these plats Nos. 'Z and 3 did the best. The season was a very dry one, and the Red Top and Foul Meadow did absolutely nothing worth the name on any part of the plats. The Orchard Grass did best on the loams and the Blue Grass on the drained muck bed and clay loam. Timothy grew in all places tolerably well. These should be observed in a moist or decidedly wet season in order to get at their value as grasses. It must be remembered that the clover and timothy on the same field gave only one-half the usual crop, and that for 6 successive weeks in April and May, we were without enough rain to wet down one-half an inch. Later in the season the plats have done better, with frequent rains in July. EXPERIMENTS IN BREEDING. Last year the Hereford cow dropped a calf sired by the Short-horn bull Rufus, 18,275; he by 2d Duke of Oneida and out of Roan Duchess 3d. This calf carried the markitigs of the Hereford cattle (the white face and general appearance) with much of the disposition of the mother. This year the ex- periment was repeated and the result was almost identical. A heifer calf was dropped with the white face of the Hereford, etc., as before, and sired by the same bull. This year the Hereford has been served by the Devon bull and her first cross- bred heifer by the young Short-Horn bull Gen. Custer, 29,G18; he by the 23d Duke of Airdrie, 19,9(53, out of imported Georgia Hillhurst 3d, bred by Col. Kingscoli, Gloucestershire, and imported by B. B. Groom & Sons to Kentucky. Next year will probably show the result of this years' breeding, and it will be watched with a great deal of interest for two re.isons. Firat, To see the result of the first and second impregnation on subsequent progeny ; and ISecond, To watch result of union of Devon and Hereford blood. 1 have also experimented in ihe weighing of feed consumed, so as to see the ratio of pounds of feed consumed for lUO lbs. live weight in the different breeds, viz.: Short-horns, A^rshires, Devous, Galloways, and Jerseys. I DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 39 selected 8 Short-horns, 7 Ayrshires, 2 Devons, 2 Galloways, and only one Jer- sey as that was the only cow of the breed on the farm. The result is given in the following table. The food was turnips, corn- stalks, and straw, wich a small grain ration somewhat proportioned to the size of the animal : Jersey Devon Ayrshire Short-horn. Galloway.. Average Iba. con- Bumed per day. 101 ,'i 83 23-24 99 6-7 105 yi 102 )i Average weight of Auimals. 990 1195 1116 1208 1153 Average fond per 100 lbs. live weight. 10.277 7.025 S.947 8.719 8.857 A verago grain pts.per day. 6 4 5 4-7 This experiment was continued and gives the average for 24 days. This report must only be taken as an indication and not as a decisive result. It should be continued for some time and in different years and with a large number of animals, and in time might give some data of comparative value. The first subsoiling done on the farm proper since my connection with the Farm Department was done this year in field No. 5. About three acres on the north side of the field were subsoiled at a depth of six inches below the bottom of the furrow, thus stirring the soil to a depth of 14 inches from the surface. The ground was planted to imperial sugar beets. The growth of the crop has been remarkable, and early in the season the place where the subsoiling was left off was distinctly marked by the difference in growth. That part was much better where the land was subsoiled. How the crop will carry out remains to be seen. By request of the Farm Committee I herewith give a partial analysis and classification of the correspondence of the Farm Department, more par- ticularly to show the calls for the various kinds or breeds of stock. The result is as follows : Inquiries in regard to Short-horns, 21 ; Ayrshires, 21 ; Devons, 5 ; Jerseys, 10; Galloways, 8; Holsteins, 3. Sheep — Cotswolds, 2; Southdowns, 9; Merinos, 4. Swine — E^sex, 23; Suffolks, 2. Implements, 25; drainage, 5; pedigrees, 27; experiments, 9; exhibitions, 5; institutes, 16; reports, etc., 12; veterinary science, 2; fertilizers, 9; seeds, 39; crops, 5; buildings, 4; miscellaneous, 40. Some cross-fertilizing of varieties of wheat has been done under direction of Prof. Beal. The foregoing gives briefly the experiments and results on the College Farm during the year 1878-9. C. L. INGERSOLL. •10 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. KEPOllT OF TKE DEPAllTMENT OF MATlIExMATlCS AND ENGINEERING. To President Abbot : I have the pleasure of submitting the following report of the Department of Mathematics and Civil Engineering, for the year ending August 31st, 1879. CLASS INSTRUCTION. AVith the present arrangement of studies, each class in the College has at some time during the year, one or more studies in my charge. I teach to the Seniors, Civil Engineering, Drawing and Astronomy ; to the Juniors, Mechanical Physics ; to the Sophomores, Mechanics, Surveying, and Trigonometry; to the Freshmen, Algebra, and Geometry. The past year, owing to the absence of a Junior class for two terms, there has been no class in Drawing. The number of hours devoted to instruction in the class-room has averaged 3^ each day, this however is only a fraction of the actual time used in prepa- ration for class instruction. Besides the class instruction, much time of neces- sity has been given to those operations of practical engineering which have been in my charge. The number of students that received instruction in my classes has been as follows : Civil Engineering 32 Astronomy 27 Algebra (first term) — 67 Algebra (second term) 75 Geometry (first term) 63 Trigonometry 62 Surveying 61 Mechanics (one division) 22 The course of instruction has been the past year, except for the study of Mechanics, the same as for the year ending August 3ist, 1878, and as described in my report for that year. In Mechanics, Peck's work was substituted for that of Olmstead. The class completed the text-book, and in addition had a short course of lectures on optics and acoustics. In addition to the class instruction the following operations in Practical Engineering were in my charge. SURVEYING. In field No. 4, drains sufficient for thorough drainage, have been located and surveyed. For tlie purpose of draining the area embraced in fields Nos. 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16, a main drain to be constructed of 8-inch tile, has been located and surveyed. This drain terminates in the Red Cedar River, and crosses fields. No. 6. No. 8 and No. 10. To locate this drain required extensive surveys of the whole area to be drained, and also of the territory lying between this area and the river. Although the route chosen presents many difficulties of con- struction, it is believed to be the most favorable route possible. The main drain commences in a silt basin in the northwest portion of field No. 12, with a depth of 4 feet. The average depth of tlie main drain from the silt basin DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 41 ia No. 12, to the river is 5.24 feet, tlie greatest deptli is 7.5? feet, the least depth 3.34 feet. The fall is unifoniily that of 2G-100 feet per 100 feet from the silt basiu in field No. 12 to the north part of field No. 6 ; from thence it descends •with a fall of 66-100 feet per 100 feet, which is maintained a distance of 350 feet. The descent for the remainder of the drain is 3.26 feet per 100. The Nvhole length of the main, or 8-inch drain, is 2,550 feet. Quick sand exists near the bottom of the drain in field No. 6 and in a portion of field No. 8. Mr. McDowell and myself designed and had constructed, of iron, an ap- paratus which constitutes in effect a movable curb. In the portion of the drain now constructed, most of which is through sand saturated with water, the use of this apparatus has proved very successful, and enabled the tile lay- ing to go on continuously. The east line of the farm north of field No. 6 has been surveyed and marked with permanent monuments. ICE HOUSE. By a resolution of the Board the construction of the College ice house was put in my charge. The building was located near the dam, and set on a foundation of square posts sunk into the ground about 5 feet. The building is 30 feet north and south, 20 feet east and west, and has a height of 14 feet to the plates. Its capacity when well filled is nearly 200 tons. Each wall of the building is sheeted both inside and out, and so constructed as to leave a space between the inner and outer sheeting, one foot wide. This space is filled with saw-dust. The roof is of dressed lumber and has a one-third pitch. The building is constructed so that it can be covered with planed siding which may be painted. An inclined plane with a run- way for ice and a walk for a man was built from the river to the building. The whole cost, including the filling with saw- dust and the inclined plane, was 8139.38. LIBRARY AND MUSEUM CASES. The state Board of Auditors gave notice that the cases formerly used in the old State Library might be obtained for the College by simply removing them. About 100 cases were obtained from the old State Library and reerected in various places at the College. The total cost of removal and reerecting was 860.14. This cost was distributed as follows : Library cases _ 826 64 Model Museum cases 13 03 Laboratory 5 01 Secretary's office 6 16 President's office 5 73 Stored in basement 3 57 DAM ON CEDAR RIVER. The dam on Cedar river, back of Wells' Hall, has been finished, and the balance of the special appropriation for this purpose has been expended. NEW INSTRUMENTS. The board authorized the expenditure of one-half the special appropriation of 81,060, made to this department by the Legislature of 1878-9. AVith the approval of President Abbot the following instruments were purchased : An 42 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. astronomical telescope with 5-iiich object glass of Alvin Clavk & Sons, S450. A sextant, provided with artificial horizon, of Fantli & Co., Wasiiington, $100. A stereopticon, with ]10 views, of Milligan & Co., Philadelphia, $100. Phi- losophical charts and key to the same of Andrews & Co., Chicago, $14. The instruments add much to the value of the instruction given by this department. Their usefulness would however be much increased could the department have a class-room for its exclusive use. Very respectfully, H. C. CAllPENTER. REPORT OF THE HORTICULTURAL DEPARTMENT. August 31st, 1879. To the President of the Agricultural College : I herewith submit the report of the work of the department for the year just closed. All of our work being more or less experimental, we make no apology because the orchards, gardens, etc., do not return a profit. Instead of growing one or two of the most profitable kinds of strawberries, we have 70 varieties, requiring at least five times the labor tiiat it would to grow an equal area of one kind. The same is true of the orchards and gardens. The old vegetable garden near the professors' houses has been graded and seeded for a lawn, except the plats of sti-awberries, and they will be moved next season. The vegetables were planted in what was field No. 1 of the farm. This field, containing about five acres, is being fitted for a permanent garden. It was uneven, only partially drained, and somewhat stony. It was thought best to get it into good shape as soon as possible, therefore it has been graded, stones cleared off, subsoiled, a part of it well manured, tile drained, and the remainder sowed to green crops and plowed under. As was to be expected, the crops for the year have been only medium, yet sufficient to supply the boarding hall and houses on the grounds. After working this piece of land one more year we expect to make the vegetable garden a source of profit to the depart- ment, if the experimental crops are not included. The farm lane fences that formerly separated the College lawns and orchard, have been removed, and the whole front of the College, about 90 acres, thrown into one enclosure which contains all the College buildings, lawns, orchards, gardens, experimental plats, &c. Carriage drives have been laid oirt so that visitors may drive to any part of the grounds to inspect the work of the department. The removal of the fences has added greatly to the apparent extent and beauty of the place. During the last fall and spring terms we set out two rows of American Elms along the road in front of the College. The rows are IG feet apart, and the trees were planted every 40 feet, one row alternating with the other, forming an unbroken double row of trees one mile long, containing 28"^ trees. They were mulched with sawdust, and only five of the entire lot died during the year. A new board fence has been built from the north entrance to the east side of the farm, and the grading of the sidewalk completed. The walk extends the whole distance, one mile, and will in time be completely covered by the branches of the trees. This will add very much to the attractions of the College grounds. DEPARTMENT REPOETS. 43 students' labor. The students assigned to the department have labored 1,009.} da^'s at a cost of $1,353.52. Tlie highest rate of wages paid has been eighty (80) cents per day of ten hours. Of this hibor 8H 7-10 days was outside of the department, for which we have credit. The account is as follows : 831 7-JO days outside of department @ .80 $657 36 825 5-10 days in department @ .80 660 40 53 3-10 days in department @ .685+ 35 76 1,699^ days' labor $1,353 52 The 877 8-10 days labor cost $696.16, and has been charged as follows: Vegetable garden $125 10 Apple orchard 137 68 Pear " 18 96 Green-house and flower beds — 110 92 Nursery _ 35 93 Vineyards 33 34 Strawberries 47 88 Kaspberries 14 32 Vegetable garden (permanent improvement) 17 76 Experimental plats of potatoes . 12 52 Experimental plats of corn __ 22 56 Tools (care of, repairs) 45 20 Office (copying) 40 Compost . . I - - - 24 00 Experiments 11 93 Hotbeds 11 84 Team 3 88 Drains 30 56 Miscellaneous 1 40 $696 16 MEN" AND TEAM ACCOUNT. To inventory of horses, harness, and feed on hand Aug. 31, 1878 $486 25 feed and bedding for the vear 314 37 paid for horse I 100 00 labor bills of men 318 00 board of men 131 07 By inventory of horses, harness, and feed on hand Aug. 31,1879 $494 00 amount received for labor outside of department.. 375 00 labor ciiarged to department.. -- 407 38 received for horse sold 45 00 received for feed sold 08 03 To amount to balance 139 71 $1,389 40 $1,389 40 44 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. The men and team labor has been charged to the department as follows; Vegetable garden 823 OG New vegetable garden (permanent improvements) 45 73 Apple orchard 24 45 Pear orchard 18 73 Greenhouse and Flower Garden _ 32 50 Xurscry 3 70 Vmeyard.. 3 80 Strawberries _ ..- 4 G7 Ivaspberries _ 8 20 Experimental plats of corn 12 70 Experimental plats of potatoes 9 62 Compost 197 51 Team 17 30 Drains 4 35 Miscellaneous -_- 1 00 1407 38 VEGETABLE GARDEN. To inventory of vegetables in garden Aug. 31st, 1878 200 00 labor for the year _ J 48 16 134 loads manure @ 75 cts... 100 50 By inventory of vegetables on the ground Aug. 31, 1879 100 00 received for vegetables sold 291 39 one-half of the cost of manure charged to permanent im- provements 50 25 By balance.- 7 03 $448 66 $448 66 As this is the first year the garden has received a liberal dressing of manure but one-half was charged to the present crop. Some of the work was occa- sioned by the experiments in growing beets and turnips, and of course made no returns for labor expended. NOTES ON STRAWBERRIES. The first to ripen was the Metcalf, June 9th, a small, soft, poor flavored berry ; Matilda, the 10th, fair size, good flavor, good for family or near mar- ket, too soft to ship. Duncan began to ripen June 11th, good size, quality, and flavor ; berries all ripen in three or four days. This is the best and most productive early berry on our grounds. Monarch of the West, Col. Cheney, Black Defiance, Cumberland Triumph, Champion, Hervey Davis, Capt. Jack, and several others had ripe berries on the 14th; Cowing's Seedling, llussell, Glendale, Afriquc, and others on the 16th. The Col. Cheney is one of the largest and most productive berries, with us. It is a little soft to ship, but for tlie family or near market is very desirable. The most promising of the new berries on our grounds is the Champion, DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 45 both for markec and for home use ; as we had but a few hills in bearing we cannot speak fully as to its merits till it has fruited another season. This berry is large, nearly round, bright crimson in color, excellent flavor and texture, hard enough to ship, and does not lose its line appearance after being picked some time. It is very productive, the season lasts over a week, and the berries hold their size to the last picking. "\Ye would recommend the Black Defiance, for family use, to those who like a solid-fleshed aromatic-flavored berry. It is one of the largest, dark crimson in color, a little seedy, but otherwise very fine for a dgssert berry ; for our own eating we prefer it to any variety we have. Unfortunately it is a shy bearer, and for this reason alone will not be of value for market. Capt. Jack was productive, medium size, long season, but the berries lose their size towards the last; it is rather soft for shipping. Afrifjue, exceedingly productive in the number of berries, very dark color, fine flavor, but too small and soft for a market berry. Hervey Davis, one of the new berries, is bright scarlet, fair size, fine quality, a medium bearer, and one of the best to keep after being picked. The strawberries are planted on light soil that is not very rich. We are starting new beds on a variety of soils, and purpose growing all of the kinds that are of value, so that students and visitors may examine and become familiar with them. We exhibited 30 varieties of berries at the June meeting of the State Pomological, and will probably show all we have at the summer meeting next year. NOTES ON KOOTS. Last spring we procured seed of as many varieties of beets and turnips as Ave could get, of those suitable for stock feeding. A strip of the best ground in the new garden was manured at the rate of 40 loads of composted manure to the acre, plowed, subsoiled, thoroughly har- rowed and made fine, and the beet seed sowed with a hand drill in rows thirty inches apart on the 8th of May, the turnip seed in June in the same way. The roots were thinned to about one foot apart after getting well started, and thoroughly cultivated during the season. The soil, which is a heavy grav- elly loam, did not seem so well adapted to turnips as to beets, and the hot dry weather of the summer and early fall did not produce a good growth, and some of the turnips commenced rotting before they were harvested. Tlie varieties grown were sowed in rows 148 feet long, one and two rows of a kind. The yield per acre is given below. Turnips. Bushels. Yellow Aberdeen _ 561 Yellow Globe _ 643 Yellow Swedish 626 Orange Jelly _ 221 Eosbon's Golden Ball 683 Yellow Stone 584 Laing's Swede 540 White Rutabaga 350 Skirviug's Swede 569 An average yield of 528.554+ bushels per acre. Note.— The llcport of 1879 not beiiiR published till the spring of 18S0, it was thought best to give the results ot experiment in root growing in the present number. 40 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Beets. Bushels. Harris' Improved Yellow Globe 1,104 Wordeii's Grunge Globe 873 YoUow G lobe 1,014 Kod Tankard 381 Is^orbiton 1,107 AVhite Sugar.. 1,414 Lane's Iniproved Sugar 8G1 Vol niorin's Sugar 798 Maine Sugar* •. 1,255 Red Globe 1,02G Yellow Intermediate.-. 1,026 Long Yellow. __ 1,140 Improved Mammoth 1,140 Golden Tankard 581 Long Red 1, 596 An average yield of 1,021 bushels to the acre, or taking the ten highest, au average yield of 1,182 bushels per acre. The roots were carefully measured in bushel baskets, well rounded up, some of the beets holding so much more dirt than otheis, that they could not be weighed accurately without washing. The sugar beets have very many fibers or roots and grow almost entirely in the ground. Some of them could not be pulled with a heavy potato hook and had to be spaded out, the white sugar being the hardest to dig. Tlie other beets grow mostly above ground ; the Harris and Yellow Globe could be pushed over with the foot. "We would estimate the cost of harvesting the sugar beets to be at least twice that of the others. The Long Red, which gave the greatest yield, grows long and crooked. Many of the beets were 30 inches in length. They are tender and break easily and will not probably keep well. The Har- ris Improved is round, hard as a rutabaga, and will probably be a good keeper. It is easy to harvest and very desirable for general culture. Five bushels of each variety were buried to test their keeping qualities. The yield was good, but we think can be increased in our garden after it has been brought into a better state of cultivation. This one trial is of course not decisive as to the comparative yielding qualities of these varieties; the experiment should be repeated several times and on different soils to decide anything of value. CORN CULTIVATION. A series of experiments in testing the effect of root pruning, and different ways of cultivating corn, were commenced last year. The corn plats planted for the same purpose this year were so infested by meadow moles tliat the experiment was given up for this season. Last year a part, seven plats of corn, some manured and some not, were root pruned from one to five times during the season, the remainder of each plat being cultivated in the ordinary way. The pruning was done by attaching a knife to the side of a five-tooth one-hor.-c cultivator, standing upright and cutting about eight inches deep. The cultivacor was run about four inches from the row pruned, on eitlier side cutting off all the side roots. When harvested the corn on the pruned and * The Maine Sugar beet was grown from imported seed, but is the same variety that is grown In Maine lor sugar. DEPARTMENT REPORTS. 47 unprnncd part of each plat was carefully weighed, and the nnprnncd part of the plats in each instance gave the largest yield., varying from a small propor- tion to 30 per cent, the root pruned corn on the well manured plats giving the largest proportionate yield. "We do not regard the experiment for one year of sufficient value to give the account in full. We expect to continue it, not only the root pruning, but testing the effect of deep and shallow, early and late cultivating, also the effect of continual working of the soil as compared with barely enough to keep down weeds. F. A. GULLEY, Foreman. DONATIONS TO THE COLLEGE DURING THE YEAR ENDING AUGUST 31, 1879. From Commissioner of Agriculture, United States: Annual Report, 1878. Speech of Hon. H. G. Davis. Speech of Hon. A. S. Paddock. Manual of Instruction in Silk Culture. Sheep Husbandry in the United States. Eeport on Crops and Live Stock, April, 1879. Crop Reports, June, July, 1879. Circular letter upon Manufacture of Maize and Sorghum Sugar, 1879. List of Agricultural Societies and Farmers' Clubs, 1876. From Chief Engineer's Office, U. S. A. : Five maps of Atlanta campaign. Report, 1878, Parts L, IL, IIL Use of Barometer on Surveys. Specimens from borings between the Mississippi and Lake Bourne. From Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A. : Report, 1878. From Chief of Ordnance, U. S. A. : Report, 1878. From U. S. Naval Observatory : Astronomical and Meteorological Observations, 1875. Results of Observations, 1853-GO (2 copies). Meteorological Observations, 1872, 1873. Report on Site of Naval Observatory. Washington Catalogue of Stars, 1845-71. Washington Mural Zones, 1846-9. Washington Meridian Circle Zones, 1846-9. Washington Transit Zones, 1846-9. Reduction Tables for Transit Observations. Catalogue of 1963 Southern Stars. Equational Fundamental Stars. Uranian and Neptunian Systems. Corrections to Hansen's Tables of the Moon. Difference of Longitude between Washington and Ogden, Utah. Difference of Longitude between Washington and St. Louis, Mo. Difference in Longitude between Washington and Detroit, Mich. Meteorological Observations, 1876. DONATIONS. 49 From Nautical Almanac Office, U. S. N. : American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, 1881. From Dei'Aiitment of Ikteriok, U. S. : Bibliography of N. A. Invertebrate Paleontology. Bulletin of U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, Vol. IV., Nos. '6 and 4; Vol. v., No. 1. Bulletin of U. S. National Museum, No. 12. Keport of Survey of Rocky Mountain Region. Powell. Preliminary Report of Field Work of survey of Territories, 1877, 1878. Hayden. Report of Yellowstone Park, 1877, 1878. Norris. Report of Methods of Surveying the Public Domain, 1878. Powell. Chart of Geological Time. Powell. Birds of Colorado Valley. Coves. From Smithsoxian Institution : Annual Report, 1877 (2 copies). Miscellaneous Collections, Vols. XIII., XIV., and XV. K. Norke Universite. From Bureau of Education, U. S. : Circular No. 1, 1878. From Patent Office, U. S. : Official Gazette to Dec. 31, 1878. From Treasury Department, U. S. : Report of Lighthouse Board, 1878. From Comptroller of the Currency, U. S. : Annual Report, 1878. From Chief of Bureau of Statistics, U. S. : Commerce and Navigation. Part II., 1878. Quarterly Reports of Statistics. From Secretary of State, Michigan : Joint Documents, 1877. Vols. 1, 2, 3. Second Annual Rej^ort of Cereal Products of Michigan, 1877-8. Compiled Laws, 1871. Vol. II. Legislative Manual, 1879. Public Acts of Immediate Effect, 1879. From State Librarian, Michigan : Biennial Report, 1877-'78. U. S. Statutes at Large, 2 Session, 45th Congress, 1877-8. Michigan Court Reports. Vol. 37. From Auditor General, Michigan : Report, 1878. From Commissioner of Railroads, Michigan : Annual Report, 1877. From Superintendent of Public Instruction, Michigan : Outline of Institute work, 1879-80. From Superintendent of the Asylum for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, Michigan : Annual Report, 1878. From State Board of Health, Michigan : Annual Report, 1878. 7 50 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. From Secuetauy of State Board of Agriculture, Michif?an: A.i^ricultunil of Massachusetts, 1.S75-G, 1870-7, 1877-8, 1878-0. Ivojiort of Dopurtnicnt of A:;riculturc, Illinois. Vol. 15. l\oport of Connecticut State Board of Agriculture. From Secretary of State Pomological Society, Michigan: Annual Keport, 1878. {2 coi)ics.) From lIoN. M. S. JJrewer, M. C. : Commercial Relations, 1877. Congressional Record, 45th Congress, 2d Session. Vols. 1-5 and index. Statements before Committee on Coinage, Weights and Measures. Report of Commissioner of Agriculture, 1877. Report of Bureau of Statistics on Internal Commerce and Transportation, 1870. Message and Documents, Department of State, 1878-9. Commerce and Navigation. Part II., 1878. Arguments before Committee of Senate and Ilouse of Representatives on Patents, 1878. From Hon. J. II. McGowan, M. C. : Annual Report of Chief of Bureau of Statistics on Commerce and Navi- gation, 1878. From Illinois Industrial University : Report VIII., 1875-6, 1877-8. From Massachusetts Horticultural Society : Schedule of Prizes, 1879. Transactions, 1878. Part II. From Connecticut Experiment Station : Annual Report, 1878. From Sheffield Scientific School: Annual Report, 1878. From Harvard College : Annual Report, 1878. From Massachusetts Agricultural College : Annual Report, 1878. From East Tennessee University : Annual Report, 1878. From University of Missouri : Report of Curators, 1878. Report of Agricultural College, 1878. From Commissioners of Second (xEOLogical Survey" of Pennsylvania: Report. Vols. DD, E, F, G, HHHH, KKK, N, 0, Q. From Prof. N. H. Winchell, State Geologist, Minnesota : Sixth Annual Report, 1877. From Hon. J. W. Hoyt, Governor of Wyoming Territory : Report to Secretary of Interior, 1878. From Commissioner of Agriculture, Georgia: Farmers' Scientific Manual. Report, 1878. Soil Tests of Fertilizers, 1878. Crop Reports, July, 1879. From Secretary of State Board of Agriculture, Kansas: First Biennial Reports, 1877-8. Monthly Reports. DONATIONS. 51 From Librarian of Parliament, of Quebec. Sessional Papers, 1 to 30. Vol. 10, 187G. Journal of Assembly. Vol. XI, 1877-8, 1878. Journal of Legislative Council, 1877, 1878. From Secretary of Montreal Horticultural Society : Third Report, 1877. From AccoDEMio D' Agricultura, Arti e Commercio dei Verona. Memorie. Vol. LVI., Series 11. From Iota Chapter, Michigan, Delta Tau Delta Fraternity: Catalogue of the Fraternity, 1879. From. Pres. T. C. Abbot, College : Address of Pres. J. B. Angell at the Annual Commencement of Michigan University, 1879. From Prof. K. C. Carpenter, College : Transportation of Agricultural Products, address at Farmers' Institutes, 1879. From Prof. E. C. Kedzie, College : Report of State Board of Health, Michigan, 1877. From Mrs. Maky J. C. Merrell, Lansing: National Live-stock Journal. Vols. I. -VI., bound in fine. From S. D. Binghasi, P. M., Lansing : Report of Entomological Commission on Rocky Mountain Locust. From SiGNOR J. A. Albuquerque, Secretaire : Annvaris da Academia Polytechnica da Porto, 1877-8. From H. W. Howgate, U. S. A. : Polar Colonization. From the author, Hon. H. C. Hodge, State Senator, 1879. Arizona as it Is. From Geo. P. Rowell & Co., New York: American Newspaper Directory, 1879. From Prof G. T. Fairchild, College : Robinson's University Algebra. Robinson's Geometry. Davies' Legendre. Davies' University Arithmetic. Thompson's Higher Arithmetic. From the following Colleges, their annual catalogue for 1878-9 : Purdue University, Indiana. Berea College, Kentucky. Worcester Free Institute. Lafayette College, Pennsylvania. North Carolina University. East Tennessee University. Missouri University. Maryland Agricultural College. Antioch College, Ohio. Arkansas Industrial University. Yale College, Connecticut. Oberlin College, Ohio. Hampton Normal and Agricultural College. University of California. 52 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. University of Tjouisiana. West Point Military Acailcmy. Eochcstcr University. Virginia Agricultural College. From PuBLisiiEKS, the following periodicals and newspapers American Farmer. Michigan Farmer. New England Farmer. Practical Farmer. Prairie Farmer. Scientilic Farmer. American Rural Home. Michigan Homestead. Grange Visitor. The Husbandman. Western Rural. Farmers' Review. Farm and Fireside. Western Stock Journal. Valley Home and Farm, Colorado. Foothill Weekly Tidings, California. . Canada Globe and Farmer. Bee-keepers' Magazine. Gleanings in Bee-culture. Boston Journal of Chemistry. American Missionary. Brown's Phonographic Monthly. Church Union. Deaf-mute Mirror. Essex Institute Bulletin. Allegan Journal. Battle Creek Journal. Charlotte Republican. Clinton County Republican. Coldwiiter Republican, semi-weekly. Flint Globe. ' Flint Wolverine Citizen. Grand Rapids Times. Grand Rapids Saturday Evening Post. Hillsdale Standard. Ingham County News. Kalamazoo Telegraph. Lansing Journal. Lansing Republican, semi-weekly. Midland Independent. Monroe Commercial. Newaygo Tribune. Niles Mirror. Pontiac Bill Poster. Romeo Observer. Traverse Bay Eagle. Ypsilanti Commercial. DONATIONS. 53 Through the Americak Unitarian" Association : Eeligioiis Magazine and Unitarian Keview. Christian Kegister. From President Abbot : The Independent. New York Evening Post, part of the year. From Prof. Fairchild : Harper's Weekly. The Advance. Literary World. Oberlin Review. From Prof. Cook : Rural New Yorker, 1879. From Prof„ Beal : American Cultivator. From Prof. Carpenter : Detroit Daily Free Press. Educational Weekly. Book Exchange Monthly. From Prof. Ingersoll : National Live Stock Journal. New Orleans Times. Farmers' Home Journal, Louisville. From Mr. Frank Benton : Familien Blatter, 1879. From Mr. L F. Carpenter : Bay City Courier, 1879. From Publishers and others : Occasional numbers of sundry periodicals. donations to museum, 1879. Indian axe. A. C. Redding. Chert arrow-head. A. C. Redding. Jasper arrow-head. Isaac W. Clifton. Iron jack-knife. J. T. Huston. Blind worm {Anguis fragilis) . C. 0. Georgeson. Hogs' foot, double. A. Burch. Cells of tailor bee. A. H. Osband. Birch bark. Irwin Smith. Peacock's eggs. N. Goodnoc. Indian totem. John Swift. Indian spear. *•' '' Indian pipe. Robert Kennedy. Chain coral. Edgar Wetherbee. Menobranchus maculatus. A. J. Cook. Lamprey eel. R. M. Slocum. Horned toad (lizard). J. Fisher. Amphioxi (5 specimens). B. Wilder. Crocodilus lucius. 0. A. Jenison. Lamprey eel. Rodney Abbot. Undeveloped frog. E. Langley. Menabranchus maculatus. 0. A. Jenison, Jr. 54 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Salmon {ftahno f^alar) two specimens. Mr. P. 13. Tattle. Entoeiiiu sortalis. P. B. Tattle. Storcriii Dekayi. J. L. Howard. Tropidonutus libcris. C. Strang. Entunia lertalis. A. J. Cook. Siopeltis vernalis (two specimens). J. D. Thomas. Tropidonotas lipedon. A. J. Cook. Enta3nia saurita. A. J. Cook. Tropidonotas leberis. A. J. Cook. Tropidocloniam Kirtlandi. A. J. Cook. Tropidonotas lipedon. A. J. Cook. Copper rock. J. K. Galley. Copper ore. " " Indian hammers (75 specimens). J. K. Galley. Indian shovel (model). J. K, Galley. Indian shovel (fragments). J. K. Gailey. Charcoal from copper mine. " " Indian backskin from copper mine. J. K. Gailey. Ligillaria (3 specimens). G. W. Mitchell. Favosites (2 specimens). " " Head of crinoid. G. W. Mitchell. Gypsam and selenite. G. W. Mitchell. Chert arrow-head (6 specimens). G. W. Mitchell. Indian axe. G. W. Mitchell. Arrow-head. A. J. Cook. Arrow-head. C. A. Dockstader, Arrow-head. F. C. Skeels. Ball of hair from cow's stomach. Mr. Dewey. Geodes (complete saite). O. Clate. Calcareoas spar. A. J. Cook. Zinc ore (blende), black jack. A. J. Cook. Galena (lead ore). A. J. Cook. Iron pyrites. A. J. Cook. A. J. COOK, Curator. DONATIONS TO IIOETICULTUKAL DEPARTME^'T. From BoTAXic Gardens, Harvard University, Mass. : Greenhoase Plants, — Aloe glabra, Aloe altiliuea. Aloe foliolosa, Aloo fas- ciata. Aloe sabtortuosa, Aloe ballulata. Aloe brachyphylla. Aloe sp. atiia matracformis. Aloe nigrocans. Aloe minima. Agave schclegera. Agave deserta. Agave Shaweii, Agave Ptahensis, Agave vivipara, Agave ensifera. Agave xalapensis. Agave densiflora, Cereus Bonplandii, Cereas tyrnia, Cereas subrependus. Cotyledon Bamosissima, Cotyledon palverulentun, . Crassula lactea, Echinopsis Egredsii, Echinopsis maltiplex, Echiuopsis Virginiana, Echinopsis tarpinata, EchiuocacLus Eyriesii, Epiphyllam tran- catum, Epiphyllam pallidam, Echinocereus Epsenbergii, Uaernia Ton- quinauum, Mammillaria gladiata var. deflexpina, Mammillaria patila var. palidor, Mammillaria, flababicans, Mammillarea gladiata, Mammillaria Fosteri var. diversa, Mammillaria Rochii, Mammillaria nenmoneana, Mammillaria divergens, Mammillaria Gailleminiana, Opantia tomentosa, Opantia polyantha, Opuntia vulgaris, Opantia Biglonii, Opuntia dessecta, Phyllocactus phylanthus, Phyllocactus Anguleii, Pphyllocactas atophorus, DONATIONS. 55 Ehipsalis Cassytha, Senipuvivnm globiferutn, Stafeliagemmiflora, 2 Aveca rubra, Acacia catehai, 2 Acacia oruithophora, 2 Amaryllis formosisima, Bambosa arundinacea, 2 Bignonia stans, Broinelia sparacelata, Bromelia Karatas, 4 Corypha Australis, Citrus buxifolia, Clematis Buchananiana, Cistus incauus, Criiuim Americanum, Clerodendron splendens, Crinum sp. (West Indies), 2 Chorozema varia var. nova, Chinia (Japan), Dahlia varia- bilis, Dahlia Cerbantisii, 3 Dallurgea f rondoso, Dolechos uniflora, Dracun- culus canariensis, 2 Epacris paludosa, Ficus Cunninghami, 2 Ficus ferru- ginea, Ficus Indica, 2 Gloxinea species, Gossypium (Nan king). Hibiscus Californica, Hibiscus Millitaris, Humea elegans, Jacobinea Ghiesbreghtiana, Kentia Wendlandiaina, Knappia McOwenii, Jjivingstonia chinensis, Liv- ingstonia subglobasa, Leucaphyton species, Libertia grandiflora, Layden- bergia diciiotoma, Megarchiza Oregona, Ornithogalum altisum, Pitcairnia xanthocalyx, Pitcairnia tylifolia, Pitcairnia longifolia, Pitcairnia lepidata, Pitcairnia latifolia, Pitcairnia flavescens var. inodora, Pitcairnia species, Pitcairnia ramosa var. integrifolia, 2 Phcenix rupesola, Pardanthus chi- nensis, Primula purpurata vera, Potentilla atrosanguinea, 2 Puya crastata, Plychosperma alenandrae, Schizaphragma Hydrangeroides, 2 Schotia speciosa, Sterculea tricasephora, Symphicandra Wagnerii, 4 Yucca angus- tifolia. Hardy Plants — Ampelopis Veichii, Corydalis aurea, Crawfordia (Japan), Hibiscus Moschentos Populus Monolifera var. Frenionti, Populus angusti- folia, Mikania scandens, Petandra virginica, Rabia cordifolia, Silene Pen- sylvanica, Orontium aquaticum, Amaryllis tellaur, Amaryllis fonnosissima. From H. Collins, White Pigeon, Mich. : Seedling gooseberry plants. From E. Le Valley, Ionia, Mich. : Six Wisconsin weeping willows. Six golden willows. From BussEY Institute, Jamaica Plain, Mass. : Silphium perfoliatum, Polymnia uvedalea, Silphium lacinatum, Carex rigida var. Bigloi, Tradescantia virginica, Tradescantia pilosa, Lythrum Salica- ria, Arum lalicum, Veratum viride, Trantnetteria palmata, Silphium terebinthaceum, Carex aristata, Potentilla tridcntata, Orontium variega- tum, Tiarella cordifolia, Stylophorum diphyllum, Agrostis canina var. Alpina, Cinna arundinacea, Houstonia purpurea var. longifolia, Carex ebusne. From U. S. Agricultural Department, Washington, D. C. : Seeds of Japan Trees — Hovenia dulcis (prob. a hedge plant), Kahia (Per- simmon), Sugar Cryptomaria (japonica), Keyaki (Planera cuspidata), Maki (Sciadopitys verticillata), Shikiki (Illicium religiosum or Anise seed). From BussY Institute, Jamaica Plain, Mass: Greenhouse Plants — Blechnum longifolium, Blechnum Pattcrsonii, Blech- num gracile, Blechnum Lomariaoides, Blechnum nudum, Lomaria nobilis, Acrostichum dimorphum, Gymnogramma tartarea, Gymnogranima Wet- tcnlialleana, Gymnogramma' peruviana, Asplenium Brownii, Adiantum patens, Aspidium Seebaldii, Aspidium membranaceum, Aspidium poly- morphum, Aspidium elongatum, Aspidium Kaulfusii, NepliroJium poly- morph um var. splendens, Brunsfelsia nitida, Eranthemum pulchellum, Pteris repandula, Pteris sulcata, Pteris semipinnuta, Carex testacea, Phamra corymbosa, Gillenia oronopifolia, Sambucus anthocarfus, Scutte- laria Mocciona, Adhatoda beviscea, Musomvina Douglasi, Callicarpa caua, 66 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Divallia divaricata, Divalia Species, Piper oxcclliuin, Poristia spectrum, Polypodiiun S])ecLruni, Polypodium liniare, Polypodium .sp — (frotu Menio), Asparagus viticellaruSj Lytlirum alatum, Solauuiu japonicum, Jasmiuum iiudilloruiu, Otstromcria aurontiaca, Sephrosia graudiflora, Crawfordia japouica, Mescmbryantheinuin brachatuni, Arnibilicus sempervireus, Ecli- inopsis Egsirson, Fourcroya Molle avcutiana, Agave cacrulescens, Zepliy- ranthus caudida, Ilydralia sempervireus, Gladiolus colvillii, Gistus virsu- tus Vitis hypoglauca, Sedum obtusatum, Musa superba, Musa species, Dracaena fragrans, Skimmia japouica, Begonia echinosepala, Aloe metro- forniis, Scaevola suaveolens, Hibiscus sp. (Sandwich Islands), lludsonia tonientosa, Grass sp. (Sandwich Islands), Artimesia frigida, Albuca fasti- giata, Primula purpurea, Primula vcris. Primula capitata, Epiphyllum spectabilis, Epiphylkim carmineas, Scontis ovatus, lla'manthus insignis, Glianthus punicens, Keona luxurians, Gaesalpinia sappan, Glong glong (S. J.), Mesambryau thimum bicolorum, Cecacia cultraformis, Solanum tuberosa, Erithrina vespertitis, Eurybia Gunuiana, Antigonuni Leptolus, Bulbine frutescens, Polypodium linaere, Ceratoptius thalictroides, Dasy- lirion acrotrichum, Xanthorrlui3a species, Dolichos sp. (from Java), Boro- nia serrulata, Pellea grandifolia, Pellea dicipisus, JDepariea prolifera, Eomula species, Gymnotturia conopea. Gladiolus permeabilis, Sparaxis bulbifera, Oxalis Isopetala, Eomula McOwenii, Fuchsia refracta, Oxalis tropaoloides, Oxalis Peottia, Oxalis purpurea var. laxela, Oxalis Bowiei, Oxalis paktfolia, Oxalis comarensis, Oxalis purpurea, Oxalis hirta, Oxalis purpurea var. lilacina, Oxalis cernua, Oxalis consolea, Oxalis contraversa, Oxalis flava, Muscaria pulchelhini, Ixia viridifolia, Ixia bulbajcodium, Gelasina azuria, Brodity tricolor, llomeria species, corbuhiria tenuafolia, Homeria lineata, Iris sysirinchum, Anomathus crudenta, Gladiolus sege- tum, Iris reticulata, Neriue japonica, Brodiae species. Pancratium species, Sachenalices palida, Cyrtanhura McOwenii, Narcissus aureus, Autholiza Ethiopica, Autholiza praealta, Ambrosenia Rossii, Scilla fugax, Scilla Peruviana, Walsonia Merviana, Iris scorfioides, Zephyranthus cordata, Iris jevicea. From E. LeValley, Ionia, Mich. : Six plants of Wisconsin weeping willow. Six plants of Golden willow, Eed osier. Conical arborvitae. From Edwin F. Smith, Hubbardston, Mich. : Eibes rubrum. From H. G. Eeynolds, Old Mission, Mich. : Liunaea borealis. From E. Hayward, Aurelius, Mich. : Sample of wheat, raised three years, from England. Fi'om C. F. AVheeler, Hubbardston, Mich. : Dried specimens for herbarium, — Artemesia Canadensis, Lonicera Canaden- sis, Lobelia Kalenii, Eychnospora copillocea, Graphephorum melicoides, Triglochui moritimum, Bromus ciliatus, Triticum dasystachyum, Pan- icum dichotomum Potentilla anserina, Circium Pitcheri, Campanula rotuudifolia var. linifolia, Coreopsis lanceolata, Lilium Philadelphicum, Lathyrus maritimus, Equisetum variegatum, Juniperus communis, Juni- perus Sabina var. procumbens, Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, Hypericum Kalmianuni, Halenia deflexa, Lycopodium, Annotinum, Juncus nodosus, Juncus acuminatus, Juncus Balticus, Carex orderi, Sphagnum squarrosum. DONATIONS. 57 From Louis Miller, Ionia, Mich. : Bulbs of Erythronium albidum. From Thomas Eeeve, Watertown, Mich. : Stalks of Indian corn with two tops. From L. H. Bailey, jr., South Haven, Mich. : Plants, — Goodyera repens, Botrychium luuarioides, Botrycliium dissectum, From John Clark, Pontiac, Mich. : Two fermenting traps. From W. W. Walters, Utica, Mich. : ^ One half lb. onion seed, ^rom Dep. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. : Burbanle's seedling potato. Dunmore seedling potato. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. At a meeting of the State Board of Agriculture held November 17th, 1879, the Committee on Institutes made the following report which was accepted and adopted. Your committee recommend that during the month of January, 1880, Farm- ers' Institutes be held as follows : 1. At Eockford, Kent county, Tuesday and Wednesday, January 13th and 14th, to be attended by Prof. W. J. Beal, John T. Frazer, V. S., of New York, and Mr. llobert F. Kedzie. 2. At Big Eapids, Mecosta county, January IStli and 16th, same delegation as at Eockford. 3. At Manchester, Washtenaw county, January 19tli and 20th, attended by E. G. Baird, Secretary of the Board. T. C. Abbot, President of the College, John T. Frazer, V". S., and Mr. F. A. Gulley. 4. At Eomeo, Macomb county, Thursday and Friday, January 22d and 23d, to be attended by the same delegation as at Manchester, substituting Hon. J. Webster Childs for Mr. F. A. Gulley. 5. At Buchanan, Berrien county, 2Gth and 27th, attended by Professors E. C. Carpenter and A. J. Cook, Mr. John T. Frazer, V. S., and Mr. James Cassidy. 6. At Mason, Ingham county, January 28th and 29th, same delegation as at Buchanan, substituting Mr. F. A. Gulley for Mr. James Cassidy. The committee also recommended that if possible, the Secretary attend all the Institutes especially with a view to reporting the same. J. WEBSTEE CHILDS, GEO. W. PHILLIPS, Committee. The Institutes were held in accordance with the above, with this exception : Mr. John T. Frazer, V. S., who was employed by the Board to give a lec- ture at each of the Institutes, relating to veterinary, had a very severe cold, and realizing that it was not possible for him, under the circumstances, to profitably fulfill his engagement, it was cancelled after attending three of the Institutes. E. S. Jennings, V. S., of Detroit, was secured for the Eomeo Institute, where he gave an excellent lecture on the (>auses and Symptoms of various Diseases of the Horse's Feet and Limbs. The able lectures of Dr. Frazer are given in this Eeport of the Institutes. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 59 EOCKFORD INSTITUTE. This Institute was held, commenciug on the evening of Januar}' 13th, in Grange hall, which was well filled throughout the meeting. The first evening session was opened with prayer and music, after which the President, Mr. R. Dockeray, gave the opening address as follows: Having been chosen by my brother farmers to preside at this — so far as I am aware — the first Farmer's Institute ever held in Kent county, I shall endeavor to perform the duties of the position to the best of my ability, and shall detain you but a short time with my opening remarks, as I am well aware that there are others here who will occupy the time much more profitably than I can. These Institutes are designed to bring farmers and their families together in closer social relationship, thereby enabling them to receive and impart infor- mation by the discussion of topics interesting and useful to all which may be brought before the meeting. J^'armers as a class live too much isolated, do not meet together, consult together, and act together, and the consequence is that while those engaged in every other business, occupation or profession have their associations and their unions, and are thereby enabled to act in concert and make their influence felt, the farmers by their lack of organization are deprived of that influence to which their numbers justly entitle them. For while the farmers outnumber all other classes and possess nearly, if not quite, half of all the wealth of the nation, and are possessed of as much intelligence, yet they exert less influence in the affairs of state and nation than any other class. Wiiat is the remedy for this state of affairs? Simply this : the farmers must learn to attend to their own business and not intrust it to others. They must see to it that they are represented in the councils of the state and nation by men of their own class whose interests are identical with theirs, men of their own choosing. When this is done, and not till then, may they expect to derive a fair share of benefit from the money they so largely contribute in the way of taxes to carry on the government. To illustrate my meaning I will quote from the report of Wm. G. Leduc, Commissioner of Agriculture, made in November, 1878. Many examples migiit be furnished to prove this part, but I must not take the time. But the world moves and all over the land the people are being aroused and agricultural papers are being established and well patronized. The Grange is doing its work, farmers' clubs are being organ- ized, the public schools and agricultural colleges lending their aid, and farm- ing is being conducted on more scientific principles and the prospect looks brighter for the future. But time is required to accomplish all this. "Large bodies move slowly, but when once in motion their force is irresistible." The agricultural is, in some respects at least, of more importance than all interests, for of the entire value of all exports of every kind and description for the year 1878— $739,971,739— agiiculture contributed $536,038,951. [Mr. Dockery quoted from the report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878, showing that a very smnll amount of the public money was espcuded in the interest of aji^rioulture as compared with some otlier interests. It is a dufect of this kind of reasoning that the facts deduced generally prove too much, and are really worthless as a part of the argument or worse than that, for they frequently misrepresent and mislead. For example: what is expendcnl for the ad- vancement of commerce is often no less directly beneficial to agrictdture. What is expended for the army and navy is as much for the protection of agriculture as any other interest. — Sec] GO STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. Secretary K. G. Baird gave a lecture entitled, "Farmer's Boys in llelatiou to Farming." (See Lectures given at more than one Institute.) John T. Fraser, V. S., gave the following lecture on AVINTER CARE OF LIVE STOCK ON THE FARM. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen : AVhen the two ends of the day seem to try to join each other at noon, in December, the farmer should redouble his activity and watchfulness ; and when the cold seems to strengthen, as the days begin to lengthen, in January his care should not be lessened if he would be prosperous. Though the climate of this latitude forbids active operations in the field during the winter, the thrifty farmer finds in his farm-yard and barns an area which, if not large, affords him ample room for a great deal of work and care- ful supervision, llis cattle can no longer shift for themselves to advantage, and must be fed and cared for if he would find a balance in his favor in the debit and credit accounts between him and them; and if he would make sure of such a balance there are certain conditions which he must fulfill. These necessary conditions are economy in feeding, preventing waste within the ani- mal's body, and the preservation of the health and vigor of the animal. As to the question of economy in feeding, I cannot, I am sure, do better than to refer you to the tables and remarks of Dr. Kedzie, published in the Eeport of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture for 1878. They also answer the question how to prevent waste within the body, so far as the body is depen- dent upon the different elements of food, and is not affected by external con- ditions. The external conditions come properly within the province of our essay and we will consider them after studying the conditions of health in the different animals of the farm-yard. In looking over a farmer's yard in this country we generally find a number of horses, horned cattle, sheep and pigs, each class containing members aged from young to old ; but for the purposes of our essay we may divide these ani- mals into the following classes, viz: work horses, brood animals, growing animals, or young stock, and those being prepared for the butcher, or fattening animals. The treatment of the members of these classes may differ to a greater or less extent. With many farmers the wintering of their work-horses is almost pure expense, the only item with which the horse can be credited being the manure he makes; and in such cases the farmer is justified in economizing, as much as may be consistent with recuperating the iiorses, and giving them a renewed vigor for the toil of the coming spring and summer. If we examine the digestive system of the horse we will find that the stomach is very small, compared with the size of the animal, " its average capacity in an ordinary sized horse being from 3 to 3| gallons." I think we could ask no better evidence of the fact that the horse is ill-adapted for consuming food of any kind having a small nutritive value compared with its bulk. And in win- tering idle horses the farmer should not allow them too much straw or poor hay ; and a ration of grain should be given each day, which should be increased as spring, with its season of labor, approaches ; in this way the horses will be less liable to contract that much dreaded disease of horseflesh, viz.: the "heaves" or pulmonary emphysema. It is a common practice with some farmers to turn their horses to the straw stack for the winter. This plan has the advantage of requiring but little labor on the part of the farmer, and affording the horses the opportunity of taking ample exercise. But good shel- FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 61 ter should be provided, and tlie ration of grain already commended should be given. Before turning out his herd of horses for tlie winter the farmer should see that tliere are no effects of strains, received the past season, remaining in any of the horses. If there should be any a blister should be applied, and in some cases firing may be necessary. The winter's rest will be found to be a great support to the medical or surgical treatment. Horses that are being Avorked hard during the wniter should be fed as during the summer, and be well protected from drafts of cold air when heated. They should never be left in the stable with the coat wet or damp, but should be well rubbed with dry straw or cloths and then covered with dry blankets. "Within late years there has been introduced into tliis country a practice that cannot be too highly commended, as a means of enabling the horse to do hard or rapid work with greater ease and comfort during the winter, viz. : clipping, which consists in removing the thick coat of long liair that covers the animal at this season and interferes to a great extent with the healthy action of the skin while he is working hard. This operation will often prevent the invasion of acute diseases, and is sometimes of absolute necessity, as a therapeutic measure in the treat- ment of chronic diseases of the chest. From my own experience, I am sure that we can give a working horse better care, with less than half the labor by clipping, than we could by leaving the thick coat of hair, to be wet by rain or snow or sweat, while he is working. But the clipped horse sliould receive constant attention while at work ; when he is allowed to stand he should have a double covering of blankets, and while he is in the stable he should have a single, warm blanket for covering. Brood animals, w'ith growing stock, should always occupy the first place in the farm- er's attention. In case of brood animals he should remember that their sys- tems, are undergoing a peculiar, and severe trial; and that he has at stake, the w^elfare of a being yet to be brought forth. This class of animals should receive good, nutritious food ; "the regular development, and a good consti- tution in the foetus depend upon it;" without being too fat they should be in good condition. ''Plethora and obesity predispose to abortion, and render parturition difficult;" and again, if the animals are too thin, the milk is likely to want in quantity and quality. Young animals often seem to be predisposed to rickets, and sometimes it would seem that the predisposition was due to a want of bone-forming material in the food furnished tlie dam ; and the dif- ficulty is often prevented by feeding her with ground bones during the period of gestation ; and as the animals are not likely to be injured in this way, it may be found an advantage to keep a quantity of finely powdered bones within the reach of all brood animals. All animals of this class should be provided with dry, warm quarters, and allowed free access to water; in this way long periods of thirst, to be quenched by heavy draughts of cold water, a prolific source of abortions, are avoided. As the term of delivery approaches the food, without ceasing to be substan- tial, should have a relaxing influence upon the system ; if roots of any kind can be given they will be found a great advantage; for, aside from acting on the digestive system, they will increase the supply of milk. Bran mashes or gruels may be given from time to time if there is a tendency toward constipa- tion. In some cases it may be found necessary to resort to saline purgatives; :Jth lb. doses of ei:)Som salts at intervals of four hours may bo given to the mare, and cow, and smaller doses for tlie smaller animals. Acute constipation is of frequent occurrence in foals dropped during the winter, or early spring. If taken in hand in time, injecting mild soap suds GZ STATE IJOARD OF AGIUCULTURE. into the rectum u few times, will f^oncrally bring relief; but if neglected, or if the trouI)le has not boon discovered for some time a tablespoou-f nil of cas- tor oil should be givcMi to a very young foal, in company with the injections, and a laiger dose of oil may be necessary in older animals. Constipation in the yound animal should be carefully looked for, in cases in which it has beea found necessary to draw the milk from the dam, for a length of time before delivery. Diarrhoea is sometimes met with in young animals at this time, but this is a trouble reciuiring skilled and experienced treatment; but in all cases the food of the dam should be changed, as the irritation of the intestines is often caused by the milk. Young animals dropped the preceding spring, or summer, should be pro- vided with warm quarters, properly ventilated, and witli all the good food they will eat. Young animals never should be put to the drudgery of working up coarse or damaged food ; their digestive organs are yet weak, and should be favored with plenty of well cured hay, roots, if possible, and liberal rations of grain. The food for growing animals should be rich in albuminoids and phos- phates, as these substances will furnish the material necessary to the growth of muscels and bones. If the digression may be permitted, I will remark that it has been found, that crops manured with concentrated manures, or phos- phates, contain a larger amount of bone-forming matters than tliose which have not received artificial manures; and the farmer need not look to the crops alone for the return he expects from the superphosphate he has sown. The production of meat is a branch of agriculture that should receive a just share of every farmer's attention. Winter fattening of animals is oftea a source of profit to those who practice it. In feeding animals at this season for the butcher, the farmer should use his store of food economically and try to keep his animals healthy. The cheaper the food used in feeding such ani- mals, the greater must be the farmers' profits, if he gets the required amount of fat in a reasonably short time; but in all cases he will have to depend prin- cipally upon concentrated foods; and it is combining the concentrated foods, with the coarse, in just proportions, that he will make his economy. Compar- ative Physiology teaches that most of the domestic animals require a certain bulk of food, in order that digestion may be properly carried oij. We find that from two to three pounds per day is an average increase in weight in the case of the ox, when being fed for the batcher; and it would not be difficult to put the substances which represent this increase, and those that would compensate the necessary daily waste of the animal, in a very small compass; but when we come to examine the stomach of the ox, we find that our ration for the day would occupy but a small portion of the space we find there ; and if we should persist in feeding such a ration it would not be long before we found that our animal had but "a poor show" for a three pounds' gain. This fact of the animal requiring considerable bulk in his food, may be turned to good account by the farmer, in feeding catttle or sheep, for example, he can take a quantity of corn stalks or straw to furnish the bulk and combine with them other foods of small bulk, but rich in fat producing substances, as corn, or oil meal or even oil itself, as is done by European feeders. In this country the farmer will have to govern himself in feeding cattle or sheep by the market he is feeding for; if it is for an American market he will need food rich in albuminoids, as very fat beef or mutton is in but little demand. But if it happens that his animals will make shipping stock, he need have no fear of making them foo fat. In the later stages of the fattening process the farmer may find it difficult to make his animals eat as much as he FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 63 would like. In such cases he may resort to the class of drugs known as condi- ments, such as salt, pepper, garlic, onions and vinegar; bat in all cases these matters should be used in small quantities and with caution, A variety of food should be at hand, if possible, and the animal's caprices of appetite humored. A careful eye should be kept upon each animal. If it is found that some of the herd or flock refuse their food, but still have a bright eye, and continue to ruminate, the food should be changed and a smaller ration given for a time. If the eye is dull and rumination suspended, there is some derangement of the system which perhaps may be corrected by giving moist or green food; and if the animal has been fed on dry fodder it may bo necessary to give a dose of epsom salts, — 1 lb. for an ox, and 3 oz. to | ib. for a sheep. The disease most liable to trouble the farmer in feeding cattle or sheep for the butcher is impaction of the third stomach, and is most likely to result from the use of dry food, and late in the feeding season. As the animals are becoming well loaded with fat, and the time for sale or shipment draws near, green food of some kind should be added to the daily ration ; and if a little ground oil-cake can be given it will be found a great help, both on account of its richness in fat producing substances and the stimulating and loosening effect it has on the digestive sys- tem of the animals. We often find on the farm quantities of hay or corn stalks that have been damaged by heating and moulding; such matters should be fed with caution to any animals, and more particularly to those in the later stages of fattening; for aside from the possibility that they may cause difficulty in the digestive system, they very readily act upon the urinary system, and often with serious or even fatal effect. Animals that are being fattened should be housed in a warm and moist rather than in a cool and dry atmosphere, as they are found to take on fat better in the former conditions than in the latter. The stables should be dark and the animals kept quiet as possible. Noisy and restless members should be drafted from the herd before the feeding season commences; such animals never do well themselves and are a source of annoy- ance to their neighbors in the stable. In this chiss of animals the farmer does not want to develop the bones and muscles to a great extent, and he should keep them in health by means of an intelligent regulation of the ration of food to the animal's wants, combined with thorough ventilation and drainasre. Thus far we have assumed that all animals were to receive better shelter than is to be found on the lee side of a grove, a straw stack, or a barn. The ques- tion of housing animals during the winter has been discussed and rcdiscussed during the past year by our agricultural press, but I have never seen the sys- tem of leaving animals unhoused defended, except on the grounds of present expediency. Intelligent writers upon the subject do not attempt to deny that there is waste of food when animals are fed out of doors and exposed to the winter's cold, but argue in this way, viz. : " We can furnish the food necessary to sup- ply th>is waste easier and cheaper than we could put up suitable shelter for our cattle." Such mai/ be the case, but surely we may be pardoned if, after form- ing something of an idea of the waste of food in the animal's body when exposd to such weather, as we have reason to believe often exists on the Illinois prairies, we entertain serious doubts of the system being economical, even as a present or temijorary expedieid. I think that if we could measure the waste of food there is in feeding sixty or one hundred head of steers in the open air, exposing them to the cold winds and storms of a prairie winter, we should find that the food so wasted would keep and fatten a goodly number of cattle, which, if sold, would go a long way towards paying the interest on the capital C4 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. necessary to shelter tliem and the rest of the herd. But the fanners of Mich- igan are not those of Illinois, and how to save food in wintering stock must be an important question to a great many of them. I am sorry that 1 have not been able to find the data necessary to making an estimate of the probable -waste of food in feeding cattle when exposed to the inclemency of our winter; but I think that in reviewing the different sources of waste in such circum- stances we will conclude tliat if the waste is not enormous, it is at least suffi- ciently great to make it an object for every farmer to prevent as much of it as may be in his power. The first source of waste with which we meet is the heat required from the body to raise cold food ingested to its own temjicrature. It must be evident to every one that all matters taken into the body must bo brought to its temperature. If we drink water at 33° F., it will take up about sixty-five degrees of heat for each unit of water in order to reach the tempera- ture of our bodies, and at the expense of heat taken from the system. If we drink tea or coffee at 150° F. we furnish the body with about 52° of heat for each unit of water. One of the advantages of cooked or steamed food for cattle is that we can feed it at or a little above the temperature of the body of the animal; but a steaming apparatus is too expensive for every farmer who has perliaps but ten or fifteen head of cattle. But this little is within the reach of most farmers, viz. : furnishing their stock with water from a well or living spring instead of from an ice-bound brook or lake. The other condi- tions of waste of food in the animal we will find in the surroundings of the animal and for the purpose of better studying these conditiona of waste, we will compare the animal to a steam engine ; and modern physiology will justify lis in assuming such a position. The activity of the animal is dependent on oxydation or combustion, and the consequent evolution of heat, combined with a certain amount of combustion of matters in the lungs; and we shall see hereafter that preventing an undue escape of this evolved heat is an item of true economy for the farmer. If we visit a properly managed manufacturing establishment we will find that the proprietor has taken every precaution to prevent the escape of heat before it has been used for his benefit. The fire and boiler are surrounded by non-conducting material ; the boiler is made with a series of tubes, through which the heated air is made to pass, thereby bring- ing every unit of heat possible to the work of generating steam ; or in other ■words, converting the heat into a motive power. But when we turn to the aniinated engines of many farmers it would seem that the chances were in favor of the escape of heat, and consequent waste of fuel or food. Let us now look at the conditions that affect unsheltered animals. In the first place we find them at the mercy of cold winds ; every moment millions of atoms of air are hurled past them, each one hungry for heat. It is true that the animals are covered with a thick coat of hair or wool, which is a poor con- ductor of heat, and the air does not get as much heat as it might ; but the postures and actions of the animals afford us ample proof that a great deal too much heat is carried away to be comfortable for them. But we will suppose that it has rained for some time and the coat has become wet, which will have rendered it a good conductor, and the air gathers plenty of heat as it passes, and the animals gather themselves closer and closer together, seeming to try to keep the little warmth they have. Again, the wind may blow little or not at all, but after a long rain the weather has turned cold ; the wet coat, aside from beijig a conductor of heat from the body, must be dried, and at the expense of fuel furnished from the farmer's store of fodder. Who of us has not experienced an evening in winter when it would seem that the clouds had FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 65 fled to a warmer clime, the smile of the moon in its glory, and the twinkling of the stars seem to be satires on warmth and comfort; even the winds are too cold to blow. How fare the houseless flocks and herds this night? The farmer may have fed them well and given them plenty of straw for bedding, yet they are cold and wasting the food he has given them. One of the char- acters of heat is its property of being radiated ; thus if we hold a heated body near our face we feel its heat, which is called radiant heat. In nature radia- tion is going on between all heated bodies. The dew of summer and the hoar frost of autumn are effects of tlie heat of the earth being radiated. We have all noticed, I dare say, that dew is not formed during cloudy nights, nor beneath the overhanging branches of trees. In these cases the clouds and leaves intercept the rays of heat and return them to the earth, which does not become cold enough to precipitate the moisture of the air. The heat of ani- mals is as readily radiated as that of inanimate bodies. "The lemming, a small animal of the rat tribe, has been known to perish from this cause when the temperature of the air was at the freezing point of water, or even above it." "In tlie polar regions the dogs employed in drawing sledges are unable to resist the cold when at rest unless confined in snow huts, where radiation is prevented, though the temperature of the air in these huts is from zero to three and four degrees below."* If the radiation of heat from the body of the lemming destroys its life with the thermometer marking +32° or a little higher, what must be the tax upon the systems of some of our cattle and horses placed in the same positions and the thermometer marking from 0° F. to 10° F. below? I am sure we have no reason to wonder that we see so many ani- mated skeletons in barn yards every spring, and after having seen the same frames well covered with fat the preceding autumn. After reviewing the different external conditions that affect the farmer's ani- mals when not properly sheltered during the winter, we may find it interesting to study the internal processes of waste of the animals under the above de- scribed conditions. In all plants used for food for animals, we find a number of substances of simple composition which if burned are resolved into carbonic acid and water; starch, sugar and gum are of this class, and are commonly called the amyloids; but, for our purpose, they may be called the combusti- bles, as they are consumed in the animal's system in producing heat in ordi- nary circumstances; aside from these substances we find in grains, and in different parts of the plant one of more complex composition, viz. : oil. Veg- etable oil closely resembles animal oil, and is readily converted into fat, which is stored up in the body, when the animal is properly fed; one of the func- tions of fat, when stored up in this Avay, is to protect the animal from cold ; it being a poor conductor of heat; but in case of need it is consumed in pro- ducing heat. Besides the fats and amyloids we find a number of substances of a most complex composition. These substances combine with the elements of the amyloids or fats, a quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur; and are called the albuminoids ; they supply the muscular and nervous sys- tems with nourishment. A just combination of these three classes of matters in the food for animals, would be the most perfect economy we could ask in agriculture, were it not that the just combination would, in practice, require too great an expenditure of time, money and Ip.bor on the part of tlie farmer. If the substances of each of these clasccs are present in the food in the re- quired abundance, the aniinal thrives, at least does not lose; but if we sup- *CoUne Traite de Physiologie coaiparec des aiiiniaux. G6 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. pose that the amyloids are wanting we will be obliged to account for a change or derangement of the system. When the amyloids are wanting we find that a requisition is at once made upon the store of fat, which will be honored to the full extent of the stock on liand, and the animal is losing in weight, or as is commonly said, is getting thin ; when the fat is gone the matter becomes serious; the albuminoids, if not consumed in producing heat, are gradually used up by the animal in masticating his food and in moving about in search of food. We will now find that thin has reached the su])er]ative degree, and if spring is not near, we may expect to see the already smoldering fire of life go out. If we begin at the other end of the scale we will find the same end brought about, though by somewhat different steps, as we will find most usually in practice, to be the case ; let us suppose the albuminoids wanting in quantity in the food supplied, but the amyloids and fats in abundance. In such cases we are almost sure to find that the amyloids and fats are in a rough condition ; being stored up in corn fodder or coarse straw, and these substances have to be thoroughly masticated before the intestinal juices can ace upon the digestible portions ; but we find that mastication can be performed only by muscular force, and consequent use of albuminoids, and these substances will be in high demand with a limited supply, the fats will be used in order to keep up the heat of the animal, and aside from his getting thin, he is get- ting weak ; and mastication is imperfectly performed, and as a consequence digestion is incomplete. In this instance we often find that the process of starva- tion is cut short by acute diseases ; large quantities of imperfectly masticated matters taken into the system, cause irritation of the intestines, and acute indigestion sets in ; the horse dies of colic or of imflamation of the bowels, and cattle and sheep of impaction of the rumen or of the third stomach. If brood animals, kept in this way, have carried their young to the full term, metritis is very liable to follow parturition ; and in some cases in which ani- mals are poorly kept, we find that lurking germs of hereditary diseases spring up and the animals are carried out of their misery, while if they had been well fed the disease might have lain dormant for generations. If we examine the air as it is expelled from the nostril of an ox or a horse we will find, that du- ring the time it has been in the lungs it has lost a portion of its oxygen, and has acquired an increased quantity of carbonic acid ; and more, that by these changes the air is rendered incapable of supporting the higher forms of ani- mal life. It is estimated by different experimenters that the horse vitiates, by breathing, about 400 cubic yards of air during twenty-four hours ; the ox over 300 cubic yards in the same time. We can readily see from these facts that when we confine several animals in a stable we must make provision for a constant supply of fresh air and free escape of the heated and vitiated air that has been breathed by the animals, if we would have them thrive. The best means of ventilation consists of a series of shafts, or hoods, pass- ing from the stable through the roof, through which passes the heated and vitiated air from the upper part of the stable where it accumulates, and a number of openings near the floor of the stable ; by means of these openings the stable is supplied with fresh air to take the place of that which has passed out through the shafts. These openings should be so arranged as to avoid drafts of cold air in the stable ; this may be done by connecting the openings with bent tubes in which are placed slides or dampers. Thorough drainage is quite as important for our animals' as for our own welfare ; and we find many low forms of diseases in our domestic animals which are due to the same causes that produce them in men. All sources of water for animals should be guarded FARMERS' INSTITUTES. G7 from the possibility of coming in contact with liquors from the stable or barn- yard ; in this way wo will guard against the invasion of many of the internal parasites of the lower animals. Nearly all of the internal parasites of ani- mals pass some stage of their development in the water; passing thence into the animal to undergo another stage of development, and sometimes passing into another animal, as the final host; thus we find that the disease of the brain of sheep so prevalent in some parts of the Old World is caused by a cyst formed in the substance, or in the covering membranes of the brain. This cyst is known as the hydatid form of one of the tape worms of the dog Tcenia Canurus. In the dog the mature form of the tape worm is found giv- ing off, constantly, portions of its body, or joints, which pass out through the fceces of the dog. These joints contain the eggs of the worm, and being libera- ted are washed by the rain and become lodged upon blades of grass or in the water, and are finally taken into the system of the sheep, where it finds its •way to the brain and commences its growth as a hydatid, and soon destrys the sheep. These hydatids are often taken out of the sheep's brain by the shep- herd and are eaten by his dogs, or in examining a dead body he gives the brain to the dogs and the hydatid is soon changed into the mature worm, which fixes itself to the wall of the intestines, and the round of changes is commenced again. In the same way the Tmnia Solium of man is furnished by so called *' measly pork," and the Tcenia Mediocanellata by measly beef. The eggs of these pests are taken up by pigs or cattle, in the stomachs of which they are hatched and the young bore their way into the muscles, where they rest as hydatids ; and the pig or ox is fattened and butchered and the hydatids are set free in the system of some lover of rare done ham, roast beef or steaks, who in his turn gives a fresh supply of eggs to pigs or cattle. And through the list of animal parasites we might go, finding this interchange of different forms from one animal to another, and nearly always finding that water Avas the connecting link. Such being the conditions for transmitting these often dangerous yisit- ors from one host to another, does it not become every farmer, not only for the safety of his animals but for the safety of his family, to see that there is no communication between his barn yard and wells or springs, and between cesspools and streams of water? En restcnie: I have endeavored to show that the farmer's aims, in wintering his animals, should be to give food suited to the particular needs of his differ- ent animals, preventing a waste of the food within the bodies of the animals; and lastly, to conserve the health of the animals by supplying the conditions necessary to health in food and surroundings, and to avoid or to prevent the access of injurious elements to his animals. DISCUSSION". Mr. Scranton said he differed from Dr. Fraser in regard to clipping horses. It appeared to him as foolish as it would be for a man to strip off the heavier clothing worn as a protection from the cold of winter and then depend upon stimulating food to keep up the animal heat, lie believed that the long, thick coat of hair was nature's protection from the cold of winter and it was a cruelty to the animal to deprive him of it. Mr. Lapham said that if as farmers we would take heed to the many excel- lent suggestions contained in the lecture our animals would be much more comfortable, look much better, and also be more profitable to their owners. The propriety of clipping horses in winter was questioned by several others, who thought it was not the proper thing to do in this climate. 68 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Mr. Frascr claimed tlitit ho luul been to some extent misunderstood. He advocated clipping liorses that ^vere working steadily, for the same reason that a man in doing work would take off his overcoat. When the horse is at rest or exposed to cold he should of course be properly protected. Prof. Beal asked whether a horse should be fed all the hay he would eat. Dr. Fraser said the small size of the horse's stomach should be considered. When horses are doing a full amount of work and have but a short time to eat they should have concentrated food. Tlie most concentrated he would feed first. AVhen the horse is not doing work, or doing but littic, he would reverse that order. FORENOOX SESSION. Fremont E. Skeels read the following paper on INJURIOUS INSECTS. A most interesting as well as instructive study for one to follow is that which pertains to insects. It is entertaining, because nowhere else does nature pre- sent more striking realities ; instructive, because it gives one an incentive to notice and to acquire the habit of observation, which habit once attained will bring ns into immediate contact with nature's rarest gems. Those who look carefully, earnestly into the workings of the insect world, will discover a vast field of entertainment as well as instruction. Some there are who insist that nothing entertaining can be found in the wriggling worm or tiny beetle which can be seen only by the aid of the microscope ; but these have only glanced at the threshold of this department of life ; it must be crossed before they can enter into the delightful realms beyond. But there is a necessity for this insect study ; men must keep pace with the wonders of the insect world. Before the extensive forests and vast marshes — abounding in plants of every description — were turned into fields covered with agricultural products insects found abundant plant-food. The scene has changed. Their favorite plants being destroyed they have been compelled to come to the farmer and horticulturist for food. It is estimated that there are four species of insects for every species of plants in some of our most pop- ulous States. These facts would seem to decide the importance of the study of Entomology. But my subject was to be Injurious Insects, and craving pardon for dwelling at length npon my particular hobby, I proceed at once to duty. Probably the most important crop to the Michigan farmer is that of wheat; the insect which prays most upon this cereal at the present writing is the Hes- sian fly, known among us as "the fly," "the insect," and by other appropri- ate names. Very much has been written, more has been said; much more will probably be written and said about this little pest, yet it continues to despoil our wheat fields. The remedies thus far advised are many but without thoroughly bene- ficial results. The Hessian fly is, undoubtedly of European origin; it was not known in this country prior to 1778, and then found in the vicinity of ISTew York. The FARMEES' INSTITUTES. 69 name was first given by Col. George Morgan, because he supposed it to have been brought from Europe as pupa?, concealed in the straw, which was shipped upon the vessel bearing the Hessians to this country. The liabits of the fly, as will be shown, readily admit of such transportation. Commencing then at New York, westward the scourge of empires takes its way, progressing from twenty to thirty miles each year until in 1860 we find them settled in Iowa and Minnesota. One of the seemingly curious facts in connection with the Hessian fly, is its sudden appearance for short periods and then its apparent disappearance. Thus in 1872, it was among us in Michigan, and also south and southwest. It was not noticed again until it celebrated its centennial in the southern part of this State, appearing as far north as the capital. Tliis going and coming is easily accounted for (though to the close observer it is well known that there are always some few to be found), and is particularly noticeable in all insects which are not provided with some odor or other means of defense against para- sites and birds. Insects having such means of defense are very uniform in number. Is it not then safe to reason that we are indebted to the parasitic enemies of the Hessian fly for its short absence? As these enemies become more numerous, more larva? of the fly must perish from their attacks which are made by laying an egg in each egg of the fly. These parasitic enemies are somewhat inclined to become gluttons, and in a few seasons not enough flies will remain to furnish them with sufficient eggs for their deposits, and consequently some of tlie parasite's eggs must suffer death. Another season still more must perish, until finally the flies become nearly extinct. In the meanwhile there will always be some few of the Hessian flies left. After the parasites are gone these flies will increase until they become legion, showing their presence by laying waste our wheat fields ; this work will continue until the nucleus of the parasites shall have grown into supremacy, when another disappearance of the fly will be noticed. This insect is very small and might pass for a mosquito to the casual ob- server. The imago fly is black with the wing bases, joints, underside of body and legs of a tawny or light yellow color. Just previous to laying her eggs the well stocked abdomen of the female is rose colored, like that of a well filled mosquito; this color is given by some two hundred eggs which are of a redish color, alighting upon the surface of a leaf she places from one to ten eggs in its creases, in from twenty seconds to a minute of time, and is off im- mediately in quest of more mischief. In from four to fifteen days, depending upon the weather, these eggs hatch into minute maggots which at once com- mence a journey down the leaf ; working tiiemselves in between it and the main stalk, they continue toward the root until they come to a joint just below the ground surface ; they here fix themselves upon the stalk and remain station- ary until completing their transformations. While in this position they do not eat the stalk, for maggots have no jaws, neither do they enter the inside of the stalk, but lying lengthwise upon its surface, they are nourished by the sap which they take in by absorption. It is the loss of this sap that causes the wheat plant to perish. After remaining thus for five or six weeks the mag- got takes on a rich mahogany color, becomes hard, and is said to be in the flaxseed state. In passing through an infected field we will see many yellow, drooping plants; pulling one of these and stripping down the outside leaf of the now worthless plant, we shall find tlie cause of all this in the little hollow which his body has formed in the stalk. There are two broods each wheat year, and favorable 70 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. weather has produced three. In the latter part of August or in September, the cjrgs arc hiid for the first l)rood ; these live over winter in the flaxseed state, producing llics in April, wliicli immediately attack the wheat left by the fall brood. The most popular remedy is late sowing, but its success is an open question. I should say, sow the most thrifty growing wheat which you can obtain. Sow it in due season and in the best of soil. Add plaster to the soil and anything else which will produce a large stalk. The larvns of the fly lives upon the stalk, and if we can produce a large straw it will grow its head and feed the larvae too. Suppose in the spring you And your field filled with this insect in the maggot or flax-seed state? If not too late for safety, and if the wheat is very thrifty, turn in a flock of sheep and let them feed it down. Some have sug- gested the burning of stubble, but as this destroys alike our friends and our enemies, I should hardly deem it advisable. Many and just are the complaints entered against another troublesome insect. I refer to the cut worm. This little mischief maker is the young of a very common moth — or miller, as they are often called. Wire worms and grubs are often called cut-worms, and the evil which these grubs bring about is often laid to the cut-worm, and cut-worm remedies are applied without success. It is well known among farmers that cut-worms live upon the tender shoots and underground stems of plants. These worms are well known too, and I will simply say that grubs and wire-worms have many feet and are the young of beetles instead of moths. The large white grubs are the 3'oung of the May beetle, and the wire-worms are supposed to be the young of snapping beetles, — or bugs, as they are commonly called. Many remedies have been advanced. Most popular among these are digging, protection of stalk, and fall plowing. It is doubtful whether fall plowing is to be recommended. It might give the birds a chance to pick up a few, but the ordinary freezing and thawing of our winters has little effect. The most effec- tual remedy for large fields has been to sharpen up the fingers and proceed to meet the enemy on his chosen ground. Nor is this actually "locking the barn after the horse is stolen," for it jirevents the loss of any more plants by the jaws of our fallen foes at any rate. Transplanted plants may be saved by pro- tection. Suppose you are setting out young cabbage plants. Take a piece of writing or any glazed paper and wrap around the plant just above the ground and reaching down to the root, keeping it in place with a mound of earth. Ashes, lime, or any other alkaline substance added in sufficient quantities to kill or drive away the worms would also kill the plants. Climbing cut-worms scorn to grovel in mother earth, and aspire to higher things. They may be found at night taking the buds from dwarf or young fruit trees. These, and I might add, all cut-worms, may be caught in great numbers by placing heaps of freshly mown clover or grass upon the infested ground. The worms will secrete themselves beneath the pile, and may be caught and destroyed. To keep them from ascending the trees, use strips of firm, glazed paper three or four inches wide, gathered or cut short at the upper edge. If the paper is gathered, tie it around the tree trunk so that the lower edge sliall not touch the tree. The band will then assume the shape of an inverted tin pan over which the worm cannot climb. By cutting one edge of the band short it may be tacked upon the tree. The larvae of the codling moth — or apple worm, as it is commonly called, belongs among the meanest of insect foes. The little moth flies only in the night, is not attracted by light or very much by jars of sweetened water, and lays its egg in the blow end of the apple. As soon as the FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 71 egg hatches the worm enters the fruit and proceeds at once to spoil it. It indulges in this mischievous frolic for about twenty days, when it leaves the apple and spins its cocoon in some snug corner. In about two weeks a moth hatches from this cocoon, and again the egg-laying, apple-eating, cocoon-spin- ning process goes on ; but this second batch of cocoons does not hatch until the next spring. AVhat are we to do about all this? I have seen many a man cultivate and lay out a plat of ground for a garden, sow the seeds, set out young plants and tend them for a few weeks, but the task became irksome soon, the weeds got a start, and at tlie time when he should have been enjoying rich repasts of garden delicacies he was obliged to content himself by sending some of his "young hopefuls" to blister their hands upon the gigantic pigweeds and red-roots. I have seen young people start a diary January 1st. and heard them declare they would keep it correct for the year; but the March winds cooled their ai-dor. and found many blank leaves of February. It is this lack of perseverance on our part which enables insects to get our best farm products. If a man bnys and transplants a hundred fruit trees and leaves nature to do the cultivating, pruning, etc., he must not expect large fruit returns. The codling moth can be fought successfully only by the combined efforts of a neigliborhood. Eight or ten of our neighbors can rear more than any one of us can hope to destroy. Some few of the worms fall to the ground with the fruit and could be destroyed by turning hogs into the orchard if convenient. If you dont turn in the hogs keep the ground free from all chunks and clods which would afford the worms a hiding place. Most of the worms leave the apple before it falls, and crawl down the tree seeking a nest. Remove all loose bark from the tree. Now take carpet paper and cut into strips five or six inches wide, long enough to go around the trees and lap a little. Fasten with a tack driven in about half way to tlie head. The worms will spin their cocoons on the under side of this band. The bands should be placed around the trees about the middle of June and examined every ten days until the last of August. They need noc be attended to again until after fruit gathering, when they should all be removed and laid by for next year's use. Many worms will be found in the fruit that is taken to the cellar, and by a little close examination many cocoons may be found and destroyed. Within a few years a new insect has appeared among us whose only delight seems to be in stocking our cabbages with, as the ladies say, those horrid green worms. The parent of this evil is a small white butterfly, spotted more or less witli black dots, wiiich may be caught from the first sunny week in spring until the last cabbage is taken in in late fall. Two broods are hatched each year. The early females lay their eggs on the under side of the cabbage leaves ; upon hatching the larva3 feeds for some time upon the leaf, then forms a chrysalis from wliich a butterfly soon comes, which proceeds at once to rear a new gen- eration upon whatever is left of crop. The chrysalids of this last batch of worms do not hatch until the next spring. Many remedies have been tried with more or less success. These butterflies are slow fliers and are easily taken witii a net and destroyed. Take a cask and place it near the center of a small patch ; fill with water and dissolve enough whale oil soap to give a strong solu- tion. The smell of this will keep many butterflies at a distance, for it is sure death if tliey come in contact with the liquid. About once a week the cab- bages should be sprinkled with the solution. It has been, and I have often recommended the killing of the chrysalids; but just before completing this paper I examined about 500 chrysalids, which I obtained from the side of a dwelling-house and only about a dozen of them were alive. I say alive, but 72 STATE BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. they were all alive, strictly speaking. A dozen of them would have produced butterllies next spring and the remainder were perfectly alive with parasites. I should say then let all alone, for the parasites will probably whip out the remnant the coming season. One word more in the tenor of this paper and I close. Many people have been foolish enough to apply Paris green to cabbages, and as the poison in this powder is arsenic some lives have been lost. Paris green should never be used except with great care. It must never be applied to those parts of plants which are to be eaten by any animal. Applied to potatoe tops it becomes a good remedy for the potatoe bug ; but applied to cab- bages which are to be sold in market or used as diet by any one, it becomes a remedy for the increase of the human race. DISCUSSION. Secretary Baird — Do you find many of the parasites of the cabbage worm? Mr. Skeels — I have examined five hundred of the chrysalis and only forty of them would produce Hies; four hundred and sixty were destroyed by the par- asites. Prof. AV. J. Beal next gave a lecture on Horticultural Experiments at the Agricultural College. (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) This lecture and the dis- jcussion upon it occupied the remainder of the forenoon session. AFTERNOON SESSION. Lecture by John T. Fraser, V. S., on the subject of "The Structure and Care of tbellorse's Foot." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) Robert F. Kedzie, assistant chemist at the Agricultural College, gave a lec- ture entitled "Superphosphates on the Farm." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) EVENJNG SESSION. After opening with some appropriate music Mr. Peter H. Felker gave an interesting address on the ADULTERATION OF FOOD. This address was extempore. The following is a brief synopsis of it. : Mr. Felker set out with the declaration that a fair estimate of the amount ■of solid and liquid food a healthy man would consume in the course of a year would be 2,500 pounds. It was always best, he insisted, and cheaper in the long run to buy the best of everything, especially in the matter of articles. He first took up the subject of baking powders and showed how they were adulter- ated by the use of terra alba, or white earth and burnt alum — the latter very injurious to bread and forbidden to be used under stringent penalties by the British government. Mr. Felker illustrated by experiments with a simple decoction of logwood the presence of alum in baking powder ; if present it turns FARMERS' INSTITUTES. TS the bright colored liquid a very dark purple. Tlie purest baking powders were those known as the "Royal" and "Dr. Price's." Butter was also adulterated ; the butter maker sometimes used too much salt and too much water was left in, which, while not exactly an adulteration, is injurious, making the butter weigh heavily and in time become rancid. Mr. Felker described the process of making oleomargerine and the adulterations of confectionery Avith glucose and terra alba, and the various injurious articles used as coloring matter. Coffee when ground could be tested by being poured into a glass of water ; tlie adulterated coffee would discolor the Avater. Mr. Felker questioned whether there was much genuine Java coffee to be obtained in this country. Coffee from Brazil was shipped to Arabia and the Dutch East Indies and came back to America as Java coffee. The only proper way to get pure coffee was to buy tlie berries green. Ground coffee was largely adulterated with chickory and the chickory was itself adulterated with half a dozen articles. Cream tartar, indigo, honey and jellies were very largely adul- terated. Kerosene was terribly adulterated, and tiie speaker had found extreme difficulty this winter in finding a pure article. Parafine was largely used to make the oil heavy and benzine was added to make it average about right. Mr. Felker lays all the blame on the last Legislature for repealing the law requiring the chill test. The only complaint the people made was that the oil cost too much. It costs just as much now and is lamentably deficient in illu- minating qualities. The wicks of lamps became gummy and burned low, which was solely to be attributed to the paraffine. The adulteration of milk and its results, as manifested in typhoid fevers, was enlarged upon. The adulteration of soap with rosin was alluded to. Mr. Felker minutely described the adulterations of sugar, the practice obtaining to such an extent that several of the most honorable refiners in New York had retired from busi- ness and closed up their establishments, finding themselves unable to compete witli the dishonest ones in the same business. Syrups came into the same nefarious category. Few people aware of the poisonous extent to which syrups were adulterated dared purchase them but confined themselves entirely to sugar. The only sure way to obtain a pure article was to buy the granulated sugar. Teas were largely adulterated, not only with the leaves of the willow and other trees, but with mineral matter. Tobacco was a favorite article for adulteration, as was vinegar, and of liquors, of course, it went without saying that rare indeed was the liquor to be obtained which was really what it pur- ported to be. Spices were so extensively adulterated that the only sure way to obtain the genuine was to buy only the unground berries or barks. In closing Mr. Felker advocated a national law and stringent inspection. State laws on this subject were necessarily dead letters, because legislation of that kind could not hinder the manufacture or importation of such articles from other States. In the discussion following this lecture the illuminating qualities of our present Michigan oil was somewhat fully discussed. The prevailing opinion seemed to be that taking the quality into consideration our oil was dearer than formerly. Mrs. M. J. Kutz read the following paper on BOYS AND GIRLS ON THE FARM. Permit me to go directly to my subject without preliminary remarks, or apology. And in order to deal with it intelligently, I need first inquire, Wliat cause led our boys and girls to forsake the farm heretofore? This inquiry takes me past hamlet, town and metropolis, across the Atlantic's waves to the 74 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. shores of our "Mother Country." There I find the cause, — that transported to our shores in every emigrant ship has become an inlierited disease that depletes our farm-houses and fills our towns and cities with Literary, Profes- sional, Political and Commercial aspirants, — ten on the average, seeking a foot- hold where there is only room for one, — the nine, as a sequence, heart-sick and hope-forsaken, swelling too often the calendar of crime, or filling untimely graves, borne there by spiritual and physical starvation, for lack of congenial employment, or, lack of bread. In England, that has contributed to our population more than any other nation, — whose habits have colored our own, and from whose institutions we have largely copied, — I find that respectable mediocrity is artistic, literary, mechanical or mercantile. While the aristocrat mainly owns the real estate, and gentility rents factories and lands but never labors itself. Extreme pov- erty toils in the mills and shops, and on the farm, and the most degraded of the class who labor, are those who work the soil ; this is considered the low- est round in the ladder of caste. When the nobleman condescends to greet the gentleman and the gentleman arrogantly acknowledges the acquaintance of the book-worn merchant, mechanic, artist, etc., while shopmen and all look down upon the agricultural laborer with a contempt that utterly shuts him and his from social life, yet from the toil of himself, wife and wee ones is wrung the wealth that sustains a throne at a yearly cost of millions, and the prodigality of an aristocracy whose money is squandered as freely as waves wash the shore. God has given unto every human being aspiration. It is nature's prayer that lifts us to a higher life. The clownish boor feels its sting in his envy of those he sees above him, but, down-trodden for ages, and cut off from social culture and respect he knows not how, nor can he make it a lever to lift him and his to the coveted good ; he only feels that he is ostra- cised because he is poor and a laborer ; that labor is considered a disgrace by those above him in the social scale, and noting the cause of his degradation, transmits to his offspring his hatred, — a blind legacy, — bearing for all time its bitter fruits of theft and crime, lawless mobs and bloody "bread riots" in the empire of Great Britain. But, lo ! One day the gates of Hesperides swung wide ajar, and revealed to the startled gaze of the Orient and all the East, this New World, — broad, beautiful and grand, — lands in plenty for new homes, — domains for nations to develop, — and " Westward, ho," "the star of empire" took its way; eager thousands sought these shores and secured small portions of its soil as homes. Mr. and Mrs., titles of respect they had never shared in the old world, fell like a mantle of glory upon them here, because they were Master and Mistress. But, where all could secure homes, each must serve, thus combining the dignity of ownership with the disgrace of serfdom ; and often ludicrous indeed was the struggle with old ideas and inherited prejudices in this new phase of life. Let me illustrate. On the farther verge of only fifty years ago, when I can first remember, if a mother was at the wash-tub or a daughter at the wheel, when some smart neighbor or young beau was reported at the front gate, the obnoxious work was hustled out of sight and matron or maiden hastened to don a stylish apron or "nobby" cap, and make-believe they were gentle-folks, and always nice, but everybody knew the work, — the work was there, and just themselves had it to do. Ptight here, jMr, President, I think I see you smile at the seem- ing weakness of my sex, but you and I can well remember many a coat and pair of pants with a boy inside of them, that has had occasion to make a quick journey around the corner of the barn, or behind the woodpile on similar occa- FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 75 sions. Ah, ha! human nature is human nature under whatever guise ; and •what wonder, under such false training, daughters sought rich husbands, whetlicr loveable or not, and sons preferred a clerkship in the city, or, ques- tionable employment even at the gaming-table, to this shabby gentility on the farm that deceived no one. But in those retrospective days of which I write there were other causes that drove the boys and girls from the farm. It was toil, not labor, men and women required of themselves and children. Unremitting toil for fifteen or eighteen hours in twenty -four. Nature's laws were ruthlessly broken. Young children were taken from their sleep at four o'clock in the morning to do *' chores " by lantern-light, eat breakfast (if eat they could at that early hour) by candle-light, go to heavier toil at day-light, and stay afield as long as it lasted, do chores again by lantern-light, eat supper by candle-light, and husk corn or thresh with a flail, or turn the wheel on winter evenings till bedtime, wear homespun clothes and hodden-gray, — coarse and uncouth indeed, — for "store clothes" were too fine and costly and would not last; besides, to desire to look well was considered vain, and vanity was a sin. That was in the days when people supposed angels were only made in heaven, and all their beautiful drapery woven there. It is no wonder to one that young people wished to escape from such circum- stances, where learning was deemed a dangerous thing, and all recreation a sin except, perhaps, the ''siiigin' schule" and husking and paring bees, — the last two tolerated no doubt because they were profitable. To desire to appear well and command personal respect from others is as God-given as any other aspiration of the human soul. It dwells in the breast of every young man and maiden, and should be and would be cultivated to a ripe and beautiful old age if it were not trampled out by the iron feet of want and toil in the hard struggle for bread, where comparatively few win suste- nance from the soil for themselves and the many viciously idle or cunningly successful pensioners on the bounty of the farm. Naturally the boys and girls of the immediate past shrank from toil that was deemed only servile, — that denied the culture, hardened their muscles, rendered uncouth their forms, browned their cheeks and hands, stultified their intellects, and rendered them objects of aversion, ridicule, and contempt to their pliant, lilly-handed, delicately-clothed, well-educated city cousins, who living without physical labor were successful claimants of worldly honors and respect. Now, Mr. President, what can we, or what shall we do to overcome past and present evils, and keep our boys and girls on the farm? We can neither bribe nor coax them, — that we know. The broad sweep of our lands and waves, the free, wild rush of winds cradled in the topmost peaks of our Sierras, the vastness, might and freedom that pertains to all our country has nursed into being a race of little giants — " Young America," we call them, — who will neither brook coercion nor delay. Let us be wise and leave them alone. Nature is a master builder, and here on this continent she is building public opinion and society anew. Let us give it no anxious thought my brother and my sister; only just keep steadily at the work we have begun of forming farmers' clubs and granges, and State institutes and agricultural colleges where erudition feels honored to hold a professorship, and our sons and daugh- ters can become refined and educated in all things, especially in the science of our profession, — the epitome of all otiiers, — and understanding the laws of 7G STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUrcE. mechanism, can direct the operations of the farm and farm-lionse, and guide with intelligent hand the bcantifully constructed machinery that relieves the strain on muscles to highly productive and remunerative results. Let us make agriculture an interesting study, and entering our legislative halls, by every means in our power provide for its protection and promote its advancement. Let us guard jealously our homestead laws, and so enact that labor and lal)or only can own the soil, and can never be dispossessed of its birthright to tlie land it tills, — the only sure safeguard of our freedotn and prosi:)erity. Let us banish forever and in every case the back kitchen "lean-to," where our girls used to be, and are even now imprisoned from morning till night of many a weary day, — where the low-browed door creeps out under the sloping eaves into the chip yard, and the low ceiling bears down its hot reek on heart and brain, as housewives know with well remembered pain. Let us move the kitchen out bodily from behind, make it spacious of all rooms in the house, crown it with lofty ceilings, protect it with pleasant porches, promote it to a front door leading out upon a clean walk of its own, where while our girls com- pound the alchemy of life for the kings and queens of the household, they can see all the world as it goes by, and watch the progress of the age. Let us lift the soiled f amilv linen from the shoulders of women and banish the weekly washings and ironings — those consumption-inducing, death-dealing ordeals — to the neighboring laundry where steamers and rollers can accom- plish more effectually and neatly the desired results. Let us investigate, and investigating learn how much cheaper are cooperative laundries, creameries and bakeries, where skilled oversight can teach our girls by a few pleasant hours of labor weekly how to administer scientifically and successfully to the necessities, healtli, and comfort of the loved ones at home. Let us by every means in our power lay the burdens of life upon inanimate things, shorten the hours of labor, and multiply the hours of spiritual growth, intellectual culture, recreation, and enjoyment. Let us discourage by all the moral weight in our natures vagrancy in whatever form, whether clothed in broadcloths and gambling in patent rights and stocks and bonds, or in rags and tatters (e({ually a mendicant), soliciting alms at our doors. Let us make it honorable to earn our bread and disgraceful to eat it without, my brothers and my sisters, and our task is accomplished. Our boys educated gentlemen, and our girls refined and cultivated ladies, in love with the beautiful farm-house and home, its pictured walls and well- filled libraries, its flower-decked walks, its breezy woodlands and rich fields of waving grass and grain, will find it for their happiness and interest to remain upon, and will show no inclination to leave, the farm. The question as to whether it is desirable for the State to make of the Agri- cultural College an experimental farm and school was somewhat discussed, and all the expressions were in favor of so doing. A numljer of commendatory speeches were made in reference to the work of the institute and the good which it had accomplished. Resolutions of thanks to Profs. Beal and Kedzie, Secretary Baird, Messrs. Fraser and Felker, Mrs. M. J. Kutz and others who had aided in making the institute a success were adopted. The session was then adjourned sine die. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 77 BIG RAPIDS INSTITUTE. The Institute at this place commenced on Thursday evening, January 15. The attendance at the first evening session was rather slim, but the next day it was good and on the second evening the large hall was well filled and a good degree of interest was manifested throughout. The Big Rapids and Green Glee Clubs furnislied some excellent music. Col. N. H. Vincent was president of the Institute, and after the usual preliminary exercises gave the following opening address : I believe this is the first meeting of the first Farmers' Institute ever held in Mecosta county. The objects of which organization, as I understand them, are for the purpose of enabling farmers and those interested in the farming business to meet together for the purpose of discussing questions and matters pertaining to the farm, with the view of cultivating and building up a better understanding, a better social feeling among farmers, and for the general advancement of the farming interests of the county. I have been a farmer here for ten years or more, and while I have always taken a great interest in the development of the agricultural resources of the county, I have long felt the necessity of a better understanding among farmers. I think the farmers will all agree with me when tlie time comes for hiring help to do the work on their farms that it would be a great benefit and satisfaction to know just what wages their neighbors were paying their farm hands. It •would be a satisfaction to know whether they have to pay $15, $20 or $25 per month. And I know there are farmers here who have introduced into the county improved farm machinery and improved breeds of farm animals who have felt the necessity of a better understanding among farmers. Now is the time during these winter months for laying the foundation and making your arrangements for the work of the coming season, and I should like to have the farmers from all parts of the county attend the Institute, enter freely into the discussions that will take place during these meetings, exchange views, become better acquainted with each other, get the benefit of each other's experience, and when the Institute meetings close and you have returned to your respective townships, call the farmers together and organize a farmers' club or an agricultural society of some kind or character in every township in the county, hold frequent meetings and debating schools in your school dis- tricts, and you will soon cultivate and build up a higher standard of sociability, and acquire a better knowledge and proficiency in the business in which you are engaged. I was one of the first to encourage the organization of the Agricultural and Mechanical Association which has existed in the county for about seven years, an organi/cation which, though not as successful in some respects as we might wish, yet has been a great benefit and has done much toward advancing the farming interests of the county, and if you will take my advice after these meetings close and organize your township societies, hold frequent meetings during the winter months, and when spring comes take a little extra pains and pride in the cultivation of your crops, get up a rivalry between townships, and when the time comes for iiolding the annual fair, take your families and your 78 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. samples of fann products, come to the fair and take i)art in the exhibition aud I will guarantee that you will all be well paid and that the Agricultural Society of Mecosta county will be a grand success. Now, these being some of the objects, briefly stated, for which the Institute was organized, it is gratify- iug to nie to see so good an attendance here to-night. When I see so many eminent men from home and abroad assembled here to assist the farmers in the discussion of matters pertaining to farm economy, I for one am greatly encouraged, and when I see the ladies here ready to cheer us on, as the ladies always are in every good work, we are indeed a very singular people if we are not encouraged, and gratified. And now, ladies and gentlemen, and especially those of you who are hero from abroad, and those who are not engaged in the business of farming, I can assure that your presence and your efforts here will be received with gratitude by all, and as president and in behalf of the fai'mers of Mecosta county, I bid you welcome to the Institute, trusting as I do that your indulgence here will be a source of pleasure to yourselves, as it will benefit and. encourage us. The remainder of this session was occupied by John T. Frazer, V. S., who gave his lecture on the "Care and Structure of the Horse's Foot." (See lec- tures given at more than one Institute.) FORENOON SESSION. Mr. R. F. Kedzie gave a lecture on *•' Superphosphates." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) L. G. Palmer read an essay on BOYS ON THE FAIOr. Boys on the Farm ; and I may add, how to keep them there. Not forever, but until they have learned lessons of industry and economy, fitting them for any position in life. The boy sliould be kept well employed, otherwise he loses interest; and when that is gone, he might as well go, for everything on the farm will profit by his absence. How to create in him, and maintain that in- terest, is the question. A few practical hints as to what may be considered the ''improved method" of procedure: First of all, let the home be made attractive, and as comfortable as circumstances will permit. If the boy could have a room or corner of his own, fitted up for his especial benefit, no matter how small, — no matter how cheap the furniture, a small table, and perhaps a shelf or two for his books and papers, a few pictures to adorn the walls, and any other little fixtures which might add to his comfort and convenience, — he could then entertain his companions in a manner pleasing to him, and with no inconvenience to the rest. Of course the boy can get along without making all, or in fact any of these provisions for him ; but just ho2o he gets along, is the matter to be considered. Let the boy actually feel that "there is no place like home;" but that sentiment may be true, either on account of its sun- shine, or its shadows. It is a sad truth that many a boy, even of tender age, is content to take his chances in the world, even among strangers, because he in fact believes that *'Thre is no place like home;" and he is heartily glad of FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 79 it. Wealth is not essential to a proper a'ld oi'derly arrangement of the honse- hold. '• Though j'ou may not change the cottage for a mansion tall and grand, Nor exchange the litte grass plat for a boundless stretch of land, You may strive to make home liappy with tlie wealth at your command."' I believe it is too often the case that the boy is required to act in the capac- ity of hired man, Avith this difference: the boy receives no wages. Let the boy be made to know and feel his interest in the home, and management of things generally, to such an extent that he finds it almost impossible to leave father alone, because so much is depending upon "father's right-hand" man. Instill into his mind that feeling, and he leaves the old homestead at last, not like the boy who " buys his time," but with genuine feelings of regret. Among the important things to observe in the early training of tlie boy on the farm, are the little responsibilities which he cheerfully assumes ; and when they necessarily become weightier, he finds himself equal to the task of bearing them. Take his opinion on many subjects; act upon it sometimes, no matter how simple, if for no other purpose than to show him that it was erroneous; kindly point out his errors by reason and actual test, and he learns to honor your judgment, and at the same time receives credit for his own ; he works with you instead of for you ; and acts promptly at your request, rather than obeys your orders. The boy is oftentimes permitted, even instructed, to call certain things his own. For example, a fine colt "belongs to the boy." He watches it, cares for it, dreams of it, firmly believing himself the sole owner. He realizes a sud- den break in the title, when a fair market price is offered for the animal, and the proceeds go into his father's jjocket. Now this may be all right if prop- erly and fairly managed ; but he should be called upon to relinquish his rights only by a fair understanding and with an honest belief that it is right, and that he in some way receives due recompense. Such a course lays the founda- tion for his fair dealing and honesty of purpose in all business transactions. Another common error in the early training of the boy is this : He is allowed to go to town for the sole purpose of holding the horses while father does the business. Not that the boy is really needed to insure safety in business trans- actions, but he needs a practical insight into those common, everyday business matters that he must soon manage alone. Let him help you test the quality of articles winch you purchase; ask his judgment as to the price; give him yours, and before selling the load of wheat explain to him the state of the market, and why you accept the offer. There is no danger in the careful exercise of this freedom with the boy ; you are at once giving and receiving information; you are closing his mind against temptation, by keeping it well supplied with interesting and instructive ideas, and strengthening that social tie that binds him to his home. He needs entertainment and recreation, differing somewhat from that which is often given him. The traveling circus and side-shows afford but poor enter- tainment, and an hour or two between chores on the Sabbath is hardly suflH- cient resting spell. Why not ])lan for him a short recreation tour? Let him break away from the farm and its surroundings for a brief season. He will return to his work with increased vigor. He needs to know sometiiing of society and of its laws and customs beyond what he may be able to learn in liis own immediate neigh- borhood. He must early be made to know that there are two sides to the picture of so STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. life, — a (lurk as well as a bright one, — both of whicli must sometime meet his view. Prepare him then for the emergencies and tlie ups and downs of stem reality. "Gently down the stream of time," is beautiful in fancy; but in reality, it is humbug. Xo one ever floated "gently" down the stream of time. We don't go that way. We are pulling against the tide and constantly encoun- tering shoals and rocks, against which our little bark is sometimes thrown with great fury. But we riglit its course and i)ull hard again. And these obstruc- tions are essential to our very existence. They strengtlien us to meet and over- come the petty perils of life. They are the great teachers that guide iis to success. Let the boy take a little trip alo)ig this route, — at first with a practi- cal oarsman, — and you fit him for the great voyage of life, and teach him to enjoy its deliglits and avoid its dangers. It will also help him to overcome that awkwardness peculiar to the farmer boys, which so often points them out as desirable victims for the confidence man. It will hardly be a reasonable excuse to say you can not spare him. Make extra arrangements with this particular end in view. You spare your horses at times when yoii most need them. You spare the various farm imple- ments when you can scarcely do without them, even for a day; and you do not expect them returned in better condition. You expend weeks and months of earnest toil in fitting certain favorite stock for the fair. You are anxious to have it said that you own the premium horses, cattle, and sheep. Are you not just as anxious to have it said: "Yours is the premium boy?" Fit and train him for a premium boy, and ho converses freely and intelligently upon the ordinary to})ics of the day without being too forward, lie knows what he talks about. He is fond of his book and his paper. In a word, he is a young gentleman in the true sense of the term. Fit him for the fair. Take him with you upon your round of inspection. Teach him the points of difference between good and poor animals. Lot him hear the discussions and decisions of the judges, and, if possible, assign to him some minor position of trust. He will guard it as faithfully as the sol- dier-sentinel his jiost. You must trust him to make him trustworthy. In addition to these advantages — which cost you but a trifle, and are of inestim- able value to the boy — he requires special training and culture which neither the home nor the district school can furnish. His field must be widened, his facilities enlarged, his training reduced to a system. Our State has wisely provided an institution especially adapted to the wants of the farmer boy. In it, he is at the same time on the farm and in the college ; both muscle and brain are busily employed. There are opened to him the many departments of industry, science, and art, managed by skillful professors, whose lives are earnestly devoted to the grand work of moulding minds and developing manhood physically, mentally, and morally. Give your boy the advantage of an education in this noble institution, rather than send him to the lumber woods; and though it may seem to cripple your resources at present, it will repay you an hundred fold by and by. I might have cited before this the fact in favor of the farmer boys that their names nowhere appear upon our criminal records or loafer's list, showing conclusively that you have acted wisely with reference to some of the rules or safeguards which 1 have mentioned. And while we are glad that this is true, ■we are anxious to record their names upon the pages of history as shining examples of that broad, liberal culture, so necessary to elevate and adorn human character. FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 81 AFTERNOON SESSION. DISCUSSION. The following questions were taken from the table : Question. — Do ashes on sandy soils act as direct food for plants, or as an agent in dissolving certain constituents present? Mr. Kedzie. — Probably they act in botli ways, but especially as a direct food for plants. Question. — Does salt draw moisture from the soil (capillary action) or from the atmosphere? Prof. Beal, — It takes moisture wherever it can get it, either from the soil or air. Mr. Smith. — I have experimented some with salt. When applied to wheat it makes the wheat brighter and stand up straighter for a time, but it did not seem to produce any more grain. Question, — Is tlie frequent stirring of sandy soils to a great depth beneficial for a crop of wheat? Mr. Kedzie. — Stirring the soil is to be recommended in general. If the soil were very light it would probably not be advisable to stir it to a great depth. Question. — Is there a difference in the fertilizing qualities of plaster, or is it owing to atmospheric influence? Mr. Kedzie. — Plaster from one locality is probably as good as that from another. Plaster from one place may contain more foreign materials, sucli as dirt, etc., than that from another. Mr. Escott. — When is the best time to sow plaster on clover? Mr. Vincent. — I do not think that the plaster we use here benefits clover. I could see no difference where plaster was sown. Question. — What is the cause of such intense heat on the surface of sandy soils, and the remedy? Prof. Beal. — Sandy soils do not conduct heat away readily and hold heat got from the sun a long time. Something green growing on sandy soils will keep them cool and moist. Then followed an essay by Hon. M. Brown on the subject of BRAIN ON THE FARM. Mr, President, Ladies and Gentlemen : Having passed the greater portion of my life upon a farm as an actutil tiller of the soil, I naturally feel a deep interest in the development of the agricul- tural resources of this region. Until recently the lumber interest which has hitherto been the principal industry of our people has almost entirely over- shadowed everything else, and particnlarly farming has been kept in the back- ground. But to-day I am happy to be able to congratulate the farmers present that the avocation in which they are engaged has asserted its right to recogni- tion, and I firmly believe that before many more years sweep into the great past, the vast forests that to some extent cover all this region to-day will be removed by the hand of industry, and fields of waving grain be substituted in their stead. Why should this not come to pass? There is not one i)erson in this room who has at all observed the products of this region who does not know to a certainly that by intelligent culture no land upon earth will produce more 11 82 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. bountifully. Our wheat, both as to quality and quantity is not inferior to any. Our oats, rye. buckwheat and all otiier small crrains are absolutely unsurpassed. As to vcgetal)les, 1 think I may safely say tliat northwestern iMiehiiran excels in their production. Where can better grasses be raised than in this region? I have traveled over the principal grass producing regions of the United States and I here state the result of my observation to be that this is the equal of any. "Why should not the farmer succeed here? He should succeed — nay, he does succeed whenever he labors with his head and his hands. And un1e>s the farmer does labor with his head as well as with hands no country on this earth is productive enough to enable him to prosper. If one of your boys was intend- ing to be a lawyer, you would send him to school, and to the best school — perhaps to the Agricultural College. Just as much as you possibly could you would do the same if one of your boys should conclude to study medicine. And if oneof them should ever become impressed with the idea that he should be a minister of the Gospel, no trouble or expense would be spared to qualify him for his high calling. Oh, yes, professional men must be educated. Why, if one of your boys should conclude to become a book-keeper you would send him to some mercantile college the first thing you did. What would you send him there for? To give him an opportunity to learn the science of book- keeping, of course. But when it is decided that a boy is to be a farmer it used to be decided the same day to take him out of school. It is not so often the case now, although it is to some extent the rule yet. "It is not necessary to educate him, he expects to be a farmer." I have heard this expression many times. I believe I can truthfully say that I never heard it repeated when it did not make me angry. I hato that expression. I have detested it from my childhood. I desjjise it to-day. It is an expression that ought to have become infamous a century ago. This saying had its origin in the idea that labor was disreputable. That idea was annihilated by the great Lincoln when he pro- claimed that the withering curse of slavery was no more, and that this fair land should be tilled ooly by freemen. This saying never was and never will be true. Every person who repeats it shows his ignorance of what farming is. It is as necessary for a farmer to be an educated man as it is for a school-teacher or a professor in a college; in fact, his field of life is much broader and more comprehensive than either of these professions. The farmer has to do with many branches of science ; he can not confine his labors to one or two, and the more he knows of any department of practical knowledge the better he is off. The farmer should be a student all his life in order to make success certain. I do not say that unless he is an educated man and a student he is certain to fail ; but I do assert that if he is an educated man and a student he is almost certain to succeed. Now, somebody is ready to ask, What should the farmer study? In a general way the question is very easily answered. He should study farming. Every man should make a specialty of the business he is engaged in. You say, Yes, that is all very well, but what do you under- stand by the word ''farming"? Now we have reached a question of some difficulty. The term means more than scratching the back of old mother earth without producing even a decent irritation. It means more than simply sowing and reaping. The word farming may be defined to be the science that treats of the earth, its formation, and all its products; it also includes the sciences of natural history and chemistry. Now, if I were to criticise this definition at all, I should say that it is too narrow; it will, however, answer for my present purpose. But let us verify a little, because in this incredulous age FARMER'S INSTITUTES. 83 nothing is worth a rush unless it can be proved. A farmer walks out upon his farm ; he sees mounds, hills, rills, and rocks, hollows, and perhaps swamps. If the owner understands geology, the science that treats of the earth, its structure and its history, these sights are iiis familiar friends, he knows them at once, and can to a great extent give the history of the formation of his farm, and can approximate its age. He finds, perhaps, in his corn-field or wheat-field a thousand varieties of grasses and weeds growing where he does not want them to grow. Some of this vegetation has flowers upon it whose sweet odors perfume the air many miles around. This vegetation, where does it come from? The seeds which have produced it seem to have been scattered by the broad hand of nature. It is, however, a product of the earth, — as much so as wheat or corn. If, therefore, the farmer understands the science which treats of the products of the earth, he will not only know about the crop his labor produces, but will also know something of every wild flower and blade of grass fostered and watered by Him who notes the sparrow's fall. There is no way to tell whether a bird of the air or a beast of the field is of use to man except by a reference to the science of natural history. Neither is there any way provided by which the farmer can ascertain the component parts of the soil of his farm, and thereby tell almost to a certainty what crops it will pro- duce the most profitably, unless it can be accomplished by a knowledge of chemistry. I know tiiat some of my hearers are ready to say that they can tell what every acre of their farms will produce best, and they never studied chemistry at all. My friend, you have by repeated experiments and at great loss of both time and money ascertained what you could have learned mucli easier and cheaper if you had even a very limited knowledge of the science of chem- istry. You overlook the fact, too, that some knowledge of any science can be acquired without the aid of books or even of teachers. I have said the farmer should be a student all his life ; so should every other person, no matter what his occupation or profession may be. How many of us have seen farmers toil- ing through all the long, hot days of summer, and through the cold snows of winter, — toiling on and on, and at last fail. We say of such a man, he is a poor manager. I have said it myself a hundred times : He is a very indus- trious man, but he is a poor manager. What is bad management? It is going through the world bv guess. Such a man never thinks at all. He is just as apt to sow wheat at the wrong time and upon the wrong kind of laud as at the right time and upon land which would reasonably be expected to produce a good crop. He does every thing by guess. He is a good man — his wife is a good woman (and in all likelihood a good manager), but he guesses along from year to year, and at last guesses out, — fails. Do not believe for a moment that he fails because he is a farmer. He would have failed as quickly in any other business. Such men always fail. They never succeed. How can this sort of failures be avoided? 1 can do no better than to give you the rule of a very eminent man in this country. "Think out your work and then work out your thoughts." It will not require any argument to show that a person who violates the last part of the rule is in as bad situation as a person who violates the first part of it, — because, unless the thoughts are worked out, thinking out the work would be an idle and useless ceremony. If this rule was observed by farmers they could to a great extent know in advance what the result of their ventures would be, and this is success. When the suggestions that I have made are observed by tiie farmers of the country then, and not until then it may be truly said that farming is accomplished by what is Called skilled labor, — that is labor educated in the industry in which 84 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. it is employed. The Presiclent of the United States, in his last annual mes- sage, speaking upon this subject says : "^ly recommendations in former messages are renewed in favor of enlarging tlie facilities of the Department of Agriculture. Agriculture is the leading interest and the permanent industry of our peoi)le. It is to the abundance of agricultural productions as compared with our home consumption, and the largely increased and highly profitable market abroad which we have enjoyed in recent years, that we are mainly indebted for our present prosperity as a people. We must look to its contin- ued maintenance for substantial resource. There is no branch of industry in which labor, directed by scientific knowledge, yields such increased production in compar- ison with unskilled labor, and no branch of the public service to which the encour- agement of liberal appropriations can be more appropriately extended. The omission to render such aid is not a wise economy, but on the contrary undoubtedly results in losses of immense sums annually that might be saved through well-directed efforts by the Government to promote this vital interest." There is, however, another branch of my subject to wiiich I wish briefly to advert. The farmer has other duties to perform besides the mere prosecution of his business of farming. He owes a duty to society which he must perform. It has been said that if a man can do nothing more than laugh it is his duty to go into society and do that. In other words, it is the duty of every man, whether he is a farmer or not, to contribute his mite towards entertaining and instructing those about him, and while a person is performing this duty he will be astonished at the amount of information he himself will acquire. There is no person in this world of sound mind who knows so little that he cannot impart some information to others. Then, too, the farmer is a citizen ; he is a citizen of the wisest, and the best, and the freest government that ever existed. As such citizen he has grave duties to perform. The success of a free government, as ours is, depends upon the power of each individual citizen to 'govern himself. Those engaged in agricultural pursuits in this country hold in their hands about six millions of ballots, nearly two-thirds of the entire vote. It cannot be possible that any person would gainsay the proposition that it is vastly important that these ballots be intelligently as well as honestly cast. Some body has said that if this country ever dies, "you can write upon its monument, killed by the people." I would rather say, write upon its monu- ment, killed by the farmers, because they have it in their power to save or destroy it. Some one may say, yes, all this is very well, but when are we to study and when are we to do all tliis thinking. It is an old and I believe a true saying, *' Where there is a will there is a way." The great waste of this •world is the waste of time. Every body wastes more or less of it. "When money or property is lost it may by industry and economy be replaced, but when an hour or a day is lost it is gone forever. How long would it take a person to read and understand ten pages of any ordinary book? Yet if ten pages are read and understood each working day for ten years, thirty thousand pages are mastered. Why should a farmer not be an educated, thinking man? I would thank any person to give me one substantial reason. I have been unable to find one reason in my reflections and readings upon this subject. Tlie ownership and cultivation of the soil has been the true source of dignity, of wealth, and of power since the dawn of history. Every possession is transitory. He who- owns a portion of the earth has a property that is not disturbed by the fluctua- tions that sweep away fortunes. No, no. "Earth, of man the bounteous mother Feeds him still with corn and wine. He who best would aid a brother. Shares with him these gifts divine." FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 85 Many a power within her bosom, Noiseless hidden works beneatii, Hence are seed, and leaf, and blossom, Golden ear and clustered wreath. These to swell with strength and beauty Is the royal task of man. Man's a king, his throne is duty. Since his work on earth began. Mrs. J. A. Uptoa then read a paper on POLLY AND THE KETTLE. I am glad to be a dweller together with you in this northern county of our good Peninsular State. Here where once the solemn forests brooded, spreading a billowy ocean of leaves to meet the flooding light of the down-looking sun and moon as they came and went on their ceaseless course. The forests ! what years of quiet had they seen ; whispering and waving, waving and whispering, nursing the beauties of each season in uninterrupted peace. But the lumberman has been here, of whom our Whittier has sung : the trees are felled, and "When, with sounds of smothered thunder, On some night of rain. Lake and river break asunder Winter's weakened chain. Down the wild March flood has borne them To the saw-mill's wheel, Or where steam, the slave, shall tear them With his teeth of steel. The brisk call of industry has been obeyed. " Cheerily, on the axe of labor, Let tlie sunbeam dance, Better than the flash of sabre Or the gleam of lance! Strike! With every blow is given Freer sun and sky. And the long-hid earth to heaven Looks, with wondering eye! " Loud behind us grow the murmurs Of the age to come; Clang of smiths, and tread of farmers, Bearing harvest home! Here her virgin lap with treasures Shall the green earth fill; Waving wheat and golden maize-ear Crown each smiling hill. We are living in the early days of the fnlfilhnent of this cheerful prophesy and we are laboring to restore the Eden which our horticultural ancestors, Adam and Eve, lost to us. With the garden went much of the knowledge and ability to ''dress and to keep" it. To "dress and to keep it" required careful observation and skillful labor, and we may well appreciate the helpfulness of those who devote their lives to the study of sciences that tlirow light upon these labors; chemistry in its subtle, ever-present, powerful effects, insect life as friend or foe, the wonder- ful workings of vegetable life, and thereby help to (ind the clew that will lead back through the winding ways of ignorance and difficulty to a blessed and 8G STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. fruitful iiilicritiincc in wliicli shall grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food. My thoughts and eyinpathies often turn into the homes now taking root here, and I wonder if the necessary preparation has hcen made to insure the best results for the time, labor, and money invested, not to mention our hopes, cares, and anxieties, llomcs ! units that make u]) the total of tliis unrivaled Kc]niblic, and every one, however humble, affecting the sum of its character. 1 wish by a simple story of humble life to direct your thought to what appears to me to be our need. Sheldon and Polly were long since dwellers in an humble cottage in western New York. The spring morning was breaking brightly, and Sheldon must have an early breakfast, for he was expected at a farm near by to help on the labor of tlic urgent spring day. Polly bestirs herself to spread the frugal meal, often peering into the kettle to see if all is right, but puzzled witli its stolid indilfcrence to the needs of the hour. It does not boil! It will not boil ! The fire is assailed, and many an anxious word spoken. Sheldon with confidence that all will be right waits patiently. At length he begins to wonder and at last to investigate. The discovery was announced with startling force, for he was a blu2 old lihode Islander. "By mighty! Polly, that kettle ain't over the fire!" And sure enough, there stood the helpless kettle on the stove griddle, with never a hint of boiling; the fire burn- ing to no purpose, and time and labor lost. Then followed a poorly prepared meal, hastily eaten, a hurried tramp to belated labor, and an uncomfortable sense all day that things had gone wrong. All this for lack of awakened thought and proper discernment of cause and effect. Do not interpret this simple story as being in any sense a comment npon woman or womanly ability. There are many kettles not over cooking stoves, in the same useless plight, whose owners need the same earnest arousing. Polly's purposes were good ; she only needed to understand and be awakened, to make it possible for her to do her best. We urge that the needs of our new homes are greatest in the direction of awakened tliouglit and educated discern- ment of causes and effects. All professions and great industries demand more than a chance preparation in those who undertake them; but home-making is the great flood-tide that takes along all without question of previous training or preparatory drill. When the weighty and unavoidable issues of life in the home bear down upon hand and heart, many courageous women are staggered and almost overborne to find themselves so illy prepared, so destitute of resources. For lack of light and knowledge which they should have in abund- ance, they must grope their way and do much at a great disadvantage. The wise ones have diligently inquired for the right ways, but the disheartened have said: "I don't have any confidence in myself;" "I don't like to take responsibility ;" "I don't see how I can help it." It is easy to trace results. In all the circle of your acquaintance you must acknowledge that where best results are reached, and homes are most com- plete, there is felt the power of an educated mind, an awakened, intelligent judgment, and a teachable heart. If early dajs were not well filled with op- portunity, there has been learning by the way, and constant effort to improve every stray bit of information that can be made available. This is an unsat- isfactory course, but much better tiian none. lieading and learning by the way has been the salvation of many a disheart- eded, over-worked home-maker, and I urge every woman to read. Kead to keep up the equilebrium of your being. Read for new thought and helpful FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 87 knowledge. Read to grow in knowledge so that you may hold the respect of sous, "Who in their strength elate. Challenge the van and Iront of fate." and daughters who ever need tlie wise counsel and sympathy of intelligent mothers. There have been times and places in which there Avas as bitter per- secution of a reading house-wife as it was possible for individuals to carry on under this dispensation, but the reading has blessed tlic world. Never suffer the blush to mantle your cheek as if you were a culprit because you are found reading. If doubling the growth of grass blades is meritorious surely praise is due to her who multiplies thoughts and ideas. Appreciate yourselves; your own needs, as well as the needs of your families. I read a little history not long since of seven women in humble toilsome life, who banded together to study, and these are the words of one of the number whose liair is whitened with fifty-two winters : " I really don't know what would have become of me if the society had not happened when it did'" said she, with tears in her eyes. " When I was fretted with our money troubles and tired with my work, I would sit down in my big chair and read our next lesson, and try to think what it meant, and somehow the load would melt away. If I did not read more than ten minutes I felt refreshed." The woman in the farm-house needs to be better supplied with substantial education before she takes up the duties of her lot than any others; her equipment in physical and mental qualifications should be as complete as is possible. The ancient Athenian matron believed it to be a higli compliment which she paid to her Spartan visitor: ''0, dear- est Spartan ! Welcome. How beautiful you look; how fresh your complexion. You could throttle an ox ! " This home makes it necessary to Idc able to throttle something more formidable than the patient though powerful ox. The igno- rance and vice of tlie old world is often drifted in upon her own hearth -stone. It is possible that tlie farm-hand may smirch her boys with the accumulated filth of generations, and there are numberless shapes of vice and wrong that she must be powerful and vigilant to contend against. She is i>olated, and must of necessity be left mucli to her own resources of thought for companionship. She is where her influence will be felt upon the mind and character of the great middle class in this republic, and she will more often be called upon to meet emergencies in her own strength. AVe who stand to-day in the midst of the never finisiiod duties of our homes know that a crowd of callow youths are about us, eagerly looking forward to life, and unless wisely restrained, will set out early in the great busi- ness of home-making, to repeat the experiment of using untutored heads and undisciplined hands. What can we do for our daughters and sons that they may be better prepared to live? tiiat they may have a larger lease of life's real good? that they may not be so nearly ready to die when they iiave just learned to live? Fathers and mothers hurried and worried with the duties of each day are not competent to do what is needed, and the common school will by no means supply the lack. We shall perhaps call in question our own good sense and sanity wiien we review what we have done through our representatives in Lansing. An appropriation of §3O,0UO was made to establish a reform school for our criminal girls, while a bill based upon the reriuest of our State Board of Agriculture that an api)ropiiation be made of $IU,U0U to build a hall for ladies, S-^,(K)U to furnisii it, §1,000 fur lady teachers' salary, and §G00 for mat- ron's pay, making a total of §iy,G00, so that our virtuous daughters might be 88 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. given equal opportunities witli our sons at the State Ajjricultural College, was lost. The reformatory for our criminal girls is quite right. I helped to cir- culate the jietition, and found our tax-payers prompt and willing to do as much for criminal girls as had been done for the same unfortunate class of boys. The justice of this was cheerfully conceded, and I am quite sure if our sensi- ble tax-payers were brought face to face with this other i^roposition, they would not hesitate to do as much for our intelligent, self-respecting daughters as they have for the criminal class, and fit up for them a place for culture and leariiing at the State's expense quite as liberally as they liave provided for the honorable sons. There is perhaps at first a hesitation on the part of some about sending our daughters with our sons to an agricultural college. It is no unusual circumstance to find boys and girls associated in agricultural labors. Why not be associated in the studies that pertain to those labors? The State of Iowa has led us in this line of education, and the young ladies have practi- cal lessons in all that pertains to household economy and work, bread-making, cooking of meats, laundrying and such like, besides the studies of the course. Let us as wise citizens give support to and urge on this plan of appropriating from our State Treasury for the education of our daughters. We commend the noble woman who presides at the White House in Washington, and believe she does credit to the nation. Our good sense teaches us that although she might be a woman of honor, and possessed of the best of purposes to do well, still lacking culture and education she would make but a sorry and bungling pass before the world. If the woman needs years of preparatory experience before she can well attend to the duties of this white house for a term of four years, how can we deny to women who must preside for a lifetime in the white houses of our State and county some years of study and opportunity to become fitted for such a place of trust? Do you begin to count the cost? You are very rich if you can meet some expenses that we know of. Provide the place for learning, give your daughter $150 or $200 per year, and see how well she will make it serve her. You will perhaps be encouraged, too, when you remember that the daughter will cheerfully Avork for her board, do her own washing and ironing, and make and keep most of her clothing in repair. The boys are very few who mend their own clothes. I fear I may be trespassing upon your valuable time, but ask your attention for a few moments more. Polly has become anxious about a kettle that does not boil, and begs your consideration of its helpless case. It stands with very long, old fashioned legs, upon a very thick griddle. The impatience of those who wait, not for breakfast only, but for all the food that should come into their lives, and prepare them for the duties and privileges of these urgent days is beginning to be felt. Money is invested, fuel supplied, much valuable time and strength employed, still labor is belated and the kettle does not boil. The urgent spring day of our county history is upon us. Polly has patiently waited hoping all would be well, but her anxiety grows as the time goes by. I refer to the consumption of tobacco and drink. Sheldon often coniplains and judges that his prosperity is one-armed and lame in both feet. Give Polly five or ten cents every time Sheldon takes a smoke, or a chew, or a drink with a friend ; suffer her to lift the griddle and add it to the fire, and he will be convinced that his prosperity has lost its last arm and has no feet at all. Polly, however, is too wise for this; she knows too well that the milk-pans are failing, and the brown towels giving out. She sees too distinctly the relation of dimes to the thousand home needs. Polly is beginning to realize deeply that the smoke is continually going up from this FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 89 altar of self-indulgence and is anxious to see the relation of the kettle to the fire changed. Polly has discovered that in this country there is a direct line from the individual to the state, and her belief is, that as tobacco and drink never enrich or profit the individual, so states must of necessity be impoverished as individuals are in their use. Polly can see that our criminals cost us enor- mously, as witness the expensive trials they must have, the costly houses they must live in, the free rides they get, and the care that must be taken of them ; and after all, tlieir worthlessness to the State. Also as witness the $30,000 appropriation for our criminal girls. She considers what homes these crimi- nals that the State must care for swarm forth from, what fathers and mothers they had, and is too shrewd to expect "figs of thistles." She sees that squalid poverty and groveling ignorance are never without their tobacco and strong drink, and that criminals are almost without exception always steeped in both. Polly often ponders the question " Would any traffic be long tolerated by our people that would so deteriorate our farm stock, — the firey young colts, the innocent young cattle, the profitable sheep, or even the choice, fancy poultry, making them such a public charge, and after all so worthless? Ladies and gentlemen, these are matters that reach to the very core of every home in the country, and we believe that the caution and carefulness that prompts you to construct laws against Canada thistles, that arouses you to pro- tect with law the fish in our streams,'and the birds and deer in our forests; the kind, thoughtful care that provides that our public doors shall swing the best way so as to avoid trouble in case of fire, will, when properly awakened to the needs of the times, prompt you to lift swiftly the thick griddle of ignorance and indifference that is in the way of our Tcettle and close the chasm that now divorces our gains from their best uses. We will work for the day that shall so educate both Sheldon and Polly, and so arouse their unawakened senses that both shall fully understand and appreciate the needs of their lots and labors, that they shall promptly and cheerfully put the kettle over the fire, and so help on the stability and usefulness of our new homes. " Happy is the people that is in such a case." Mr. G, W. Warren then read a paper on CULTUKE, COST, AND VALUE OF ROOT CEOPS. It appears to me that one of the important questions for us to consider in the future is what crop, for feeding stock, can we raise with profit, and how we shall keep our stock well without a large amount of hay and more cheaply. I shall not attempt to give you any well-written or cultured address, but a few practical thoughts gathered from experience. I believe nothing better and more profitable than roots for winter and spring feeding, especially when fed with good straw and corn-stalks. Fitting the Ground. Very much depends upon how well and when we prepare the soil. It is much cheaper and easier to fit the ground properly before seeding than after. If not in sod there should be applied a good coat of manure before plowing. Plow deep and in the fall. Soon as the ground is in suitable condition in the spring harrow and cultivate well, working into the surface soil a good top dressing of well rotted manure. Just before sowing give another harrowing and roll or smooth the ground, making the surface fine as possible. I think once plowing better than twice. If sod or manure is plowed under in the fall or early spring it should remain deep in the ground to attract and receive the tap root to the 90 STATE BOAllD OF AGKICULTURi:. end that the beet or carrot may grow long and straight. Every time wc plow we have to contend with a new cio]) of weeds, and if the foul seeds first plowed under arc not distuibcd we are not troubled with them during the season, only such as are near tlie surface will gerniinate; many of these are destroyed by the last working before planting. Selection of Seedn. It i.s very important to select good seed. Much of our labor in fitting the soil will be lost, and money also, if the seed proves poor. I have always been well satisfied when sending to D. M. Ferry & Co. Variety. My choice is the beet or carrot. They will yield more bushels per acre than the turnip and are more valuable; are less liable to be injured by insects; milk will not be tainted as with turnijis, and are more easily i)reparcd for feed- ing. For hogs they need no cutting. Never had breeding stock do better than when fed root.s during March and April. Sowing. All things being ready and weather warm, about the 20th of May, take the garden drill, with marker attached, and sow in rows IS inches apart for hand- tillage and 30 inches if the horse is to be used. My drill marks the rows, drops and covers the seed, and rolls the ground all at once. Sow quite thickly and thin out. 81iould there be open spots fill in with tlie White Flat Dutch Turnip. Cullurc. Do not wait too long before beginning to cultivate. Even before the plant can be i^een the drill marks may be followed, and a shallow working between the rows will be found profitable, as they get larger, work deeper and closer. The thinning out can be quite rapidly done by cutting at right angles to the row with a sharp hoe, leaving a few pkuits to be pulled by hand. Beets may stand from 10 to 18 inches and carrots 8 to I'Z inches apart, according to strength of soil. The oftener they are worked the better, and siiould not be left to themselves until the leaves shade most of the ground. Harvesting. Beets and carrots should be gathered before vei'y heavy frosts. A little feezing may cause the top to become hollow and soft. A potatoe fork is very valuable for loosening the ground, after which the root is readily out with the hand and the top broken off before laying it down. They will keep better and be nicer at time of feeding if allowed to dry a little before pitting. The beet or cariot will withstand a very dry season even in light soil, but the yield will vary, of course, according to the surroundings. With rows 30 inches apart and the beets 18 inches in the row tiiere would be about 11.500 plants to the acre. These will weigh nearly all the way from 2 pounds to perhaps 15 or 20 each. The few before me weigh from 3^ to 7^ jiounds. I have raised them, on my light soil 22 inches in circumference, 24. long, weighing 17 pounds. If the average weight was 5 pounds wo would have about 57,500 pounds, or 958 bushels per acre. I figure the cost of production as follows : FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 91 Once plowing §3 00 Harrowing and cultivating.. 3 00 Seed. --- 2 50 Drilling 1 00 Eight days' tending 12 00 Pulling and pitting . 12 00 Manure — - 12 50 Total S45 00 Alowing only 450 bushels per acre the cost is but ten cents per bushel. A yield of 750 bushels would reduce the cost to si.x cents per bushel. Upon the relative value of roots for fattening purposes, as sliown by analysis, I will not dwell, but my experience iu feed to breeding or store hogs is that beets or carrots fed once each day are worth fully one-third as much as corn. I would advise every one present who keeps a cow or pig to sow beets or carrots for winter and spring feeding. At the conclusion of his paper, Mr. Warren called attention to some speci- mens of the Snow Flake potato, and asked for the experience of those who had tried this variety. Mr. Escott. — I have raised tliis variety, and have only one fault to find with it: there is apt to be in each hill a large number of small potatoes. Prof, Beal. — At the College we have tried a large number of varieties of potatoes, and we think tlie Alpha and Early Ohio for early, and Brownell's Beauty and Beauty of Hebron for late, are the best. DISCUSSION. What is thought of a i)repared manure as follows: gypsum or plaster mixed with ashes and hen manure, and allowed to stand five or six months before using? Mr. Kedzie. — I do not think it advisable to make this mixture. The alkali of the ashes would set ammonia free from the hen manure whicli would escape. I can see no advantage in mixing with plaster. Prof. Beal. — As good a way to compost hen manure as any is to mix it with dry, loamy soil. Question. — Is barn-yard manure better plowed under or applied to the sur- face? Prof. Beal. — Harrowing it under will probably give as good i-esults as any way. Question. — What is tlie best breed of slieep, all things considered, for this region? Prof. Beal. — It is difficult to tell. Depends largely on whether mutton or wool is wanted. In general I would recommend the American Merino. Question. — What breed of cattle is best adapted to a mixed system of farm- ing ? Prof. Beal. — I cannot say. Each breeder thinks his breed is the best. Question. — In what way does a plant derive aid from the use of plaster? Mr. Kedzie. — Plaster acts as a food for plants by furnishing it wiih lime and sulj)huric acid, both of which the plant rociuires. Plaster also probably acts on the vegetable matter of soils, and converts a portion of it into ammonia for the use of the plant. 92 STATE BOARD OF ACxRICULTURE. A TALK ON FARM INSECTS. ]!Y PROF. BEAL. The professor said lie would not give any set paper, but would give remedies for any farm insects of which the audience would like to hear. The first insect discussed was the squash bug. Mr. . — I kill the squash bug by catching them on boards. Mr. . — I dust sulphur on the plants. The bugs don't like it and leave. Question. — What is the insect that is on the under side of turnip leaves? Prof. Beal. — Plant lice probably. Whale oil soap made into a strong suds, and thrown on the under sides of the leaves is probably the best remedy. Question. — How about the cabbage worm? Prof. Beal. — It is a foreign worm. The majority of our insects are foreign- ers naturalized. They do better here than in the old country because their enemies have not come over with them. But few cocoons of the cabbage worm will hatch this year, — the parasites have destroyed so many of them. Mr. Skeels, a graduate of the College, found that only 40 cocoons out of 500 that that he had gathered were alive. The rest had been eaten by parasites. Mr. Eose (Editor Pioneer-Magnet). — A German lady recommended my wife to sprinkle salt on the cabbages. We tried it and raised good cabbages. A soft sluggy worm has been feeding on my cherry and ash trees. What remedy would you recommend? Prof. Beal. — Sprinkle dry road dust over the trees. That will use them up. Question. — What remedy for the currant worm? Prof. Beal. — White hellebore is good. Question. — How can we destroy caterpillars in apple trees? Prof. Beal. — They may be destroyed with a shot gun when they are in their nets, or they may be wiped out. Question. — Are the tent caterpillar in apple trees the same as those on the wild cherry? Prof. Beal. — Yes. They are more fond of the wild cherry. EVENING SESSION. "Horticulture at the Agricultural College." By Prof. W. J. Beal. (See lectures at more than one Institute. Sherman Upton, of this city, who is a student at the Agricultural College, followed with his ''College Life Illustrated," embracing a series of cartoons and crayon sketches. They are admirably executed, and humorous and ludi- crous in the extreme, showing both talent and originality in design on the part of their author. The display of cartoons created much merriment, and con- stituted a very appropriate closing chapter of the Institute. President Vincent spoke briefly, congratulating the farmers of Mecosta county, on the success of their Institute, after which resolutions were unani- mously adopted, tendering thanks to the Agricultural College, Professors and others from abroad, for their assistance and instruction ; to the Glee Clubs for their music, and to the people of this city for entertaining visitors, when the Institute was declared adjourned. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 93 MANCHESTER INSTITUTE. The farmers in the vicinity of Manchester took a live interest in this Insti- tute. The commodious hall in which it was held was well filled at all the sessions. In the morning most of them, with their wives, came to remain during the day and evening, bringing baskets of provisions from which a sumptuous repast was spread in an adjoining room, and partaken of during the noon and evening recess. The committee on music are especially deserving of praise for the very excellent music furnished on the occasion. After the usual opening exercises. President G-. D. Hose gave the following address : Ladies and Gentlemen : — We have met here this evening to talk over the different topics mentioned in the programme. By relating our own and listen- ing to the experience of others, which may have varied somewhat from our own, we may reasonably expect to be benefited. This is the second Institute held in this place. The one held here two years ago gave general satisfaction and those attending seemed pleased and profited by the exercises. We hope it will be so again. Gentlemen of the Agricultural College, we welcome you to our Institute. As men of science and practical experience we will be glad to hear from you, thinking perhaps you may throw some new light on the science of agriculture which will inspire the farmer with new life. Fellow citizens, we welcome you all who have come to attend our Institute, hoping you will feel at liberty to take an active part in our discussions ; not be listners only, but talkers also, for we claim there is no position that man is called to fill in which there is more room for improvement than that of farm- ing, not only in tilling the soil, but also in economy. What I mean by econo- my is not to deprive one's self of the necessaries or comforts of life, but to use our products to the best possible advantage. Some men economize in one way and leave the gates all open in others. I presume there is not a farmer among us but that will say he has lost enough this last season in not doing his work in season or in the proper manner to have hired another hand three or four months. Once more cultivating or once more harrowing might easily give an increase of a bushel or two to the acre. We are wasting labor and capital unless we make the farm produce in full according to its capacity. Suppose you add to your average one or two bushels to the acre and one pound of wool a head on your sheep, how would it affect your balance sheet? Washtenaw county stands only second in her average of wheat in the two southern tiers of counties, being an average of 21^ bushels. Almost every farmer will tell you he might have raised a little better crop, even if his crop •was ever so good, if he had prepared the ground better or sowed some other kind of seed. If our average had been about one bushel more we would have been the first. To talk of one bushel to the acre seems small, but take it right in your own town. Manchester, Sharon and Bridgewater raise about 10,000 acres each of wheat; one bushel to the acre would make 30,000 bushels in these three towns — at present prices nearly §40,000. That would pay a big store bill. Add the same to other crops year after year, what might you 94 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. have been wortli to-fl:iy witli the time you have spent in farming by practicing economy on a small scale? Farmer B. goes to town to trade ; he bnys twelve yards of calico. The mer- chant asked him seven cents a yard, but by shrewd argument and long entrea- ties he buys it for six cents. The merchant has not made one farthing on the sale, but lets him have it thinking to get another chance at him. The farmer goes home thinking he has saved or economized twelve cents on the calico; but what does he do when he gets home? The hogs are to be fed; he takes a bushel of corn and throws it into the mud for the hogs to eat. They don't get but half of it, which is twelve cents — all he saved on the calico. And this is not all ; when those hogs go to bed there is not one straw for twelve or four- teen hogs to lie on ; they grow poor every day; he says they are not a good breed, or have got the distemper, or something is the matter. Next he goes to the barn to fodder and feeds in a similar way that the hogs were fed, having no rack to feed in, scatters around the yard ; cattle and sheep stamp it into the mud, don't eat half. When winter is over he has wasted enough to have bought more calico at seven cents a yard than his wife could have worn out in ten years, or enough to have dressed his wife in first class style the year round. Now this is only one of the instances of economy in small things that a farmer can practice. Let us look at this matter squarely, with a view to improve our methods, and. the addition to our income thus gained will sur- prise us. T. C. Abbot, President of the Agricultural College of Michigan, gave an address on "Manual Labor in the Michigan Agricultural College." (See lectures given at more than one Listitute.) Mr. Geo. S. Eawson read the following paper: THE FARMER IN SOCIETY. In an occupation which contains about one-half the population, and so large a portion of tlie entire wealth of the nation, it is certainly to be expected that we will find all classes of minds, all grades of society, and all degrees of intel- ligence. Nor does the occupation of the farmer differ, in this respect, from that of others. Human nature is pretty much the same throughout all trades and professions. But the farmer's life differs in some respects from that of all others. His is, perhaps, a more isolated existence. He is brought more in contact with nature, and less, it may be, with the treachery of man. His companions, outside of his own family circle, and his help, are to some extent, domestic animals, which never sink to the degradation of which man is capa- ble. The haunts of vice, which infest the large cities, he sees only through the public press. If he deals fairly with mother earth, starvation never stares him in the face. He may be a bad character, but if so he is such in spite of his surroundings. It is not our purpose to exalt the business of farming above that of any other avocation in which men are engaged ; but the time has certainly gone by when it was considered the business only of the dull, uncouth, and ignorant. There are many bad men, and ignorant men in its ranks it is true — if you can pro- duce worse, heaven pity your production; but we believe there is too much of a tendency to judge the whole by the few. There are many who forget the noblest efforts of the clergy to make men better; because one man in a thou- sand falls. They have only curses for the whole legal fraternity, though one in ten is honest — probably. They will denounce the merchants in a mass, because some are addicted to giving false weights, and avoiding truth as a leper. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 95 There are many, of whom the farmers have their full share, who will deuounce the railroads without stint, tiiough they bring wealth and comfort to their doors. Tliey would have consigned all the middle men, so-called, to oblivion, though they are among the most important and useful members of society. Unfor- tunately there is no occupation but that contains its drones; no creed but that contains its hypocrites; no party but tliat suffers from selfishness of its own members; no government without its traitors. But compare the farmers, as a whole, with other classes, in perseverance, industry, intelligence, wealth, and good citizenship, and we do not believe they will suffer by the comparison. As a moral power, their weight is felt and heeded. They are aggressive. The improvements for their benefit have kept pace with the improvements of the age. The rugged schooling, the solitary thoughtfulness, and the habits of industry, inculcated in the farmer boy, have given to other professions a large share of the most successful business men, of the best writers, of the soundest thinkers, of the ablest statesmen, of whicli any age can boast. But we wish more especially to speak of a few certain classes of farmers, and while we see fit to criticise, we by no means claim exemption from that criti- cism ourself. On the contrary, we feel a considerable degree of guilt, hoping that in the discussion of habits which may be common, we may be mutually benefited. You will doubtless understand that those certain chisscs are not confined to farmers altogether, but it is sufficient for our purpose to confine our remarks to those within our ranks. It has been said by some one that the first thing that an Englishman does when he comes into the world is to grumble. Tiiere are a good many farmers who seem to be like the Englishman, born grumblers. One particular object of their wrath is the Aveather. We doubt if it could be made to suit even if it were made to order. They are like the old deacon who in time of droutii prayed for an old fashioned drizzle- drousle, and when it came was considerably emphatic in saying that he didn't mean to have it rain forever. He is the same chap who annually discovers that all the peaches have the yellows; that the moths have blasted what little hope there was left of a crop of fruit after the frosts of winter. He will tell us that the insects have destroyed half the wheat, that the winter has killed another half, that another half has been destroyed by wind and hail, and that what there was left didn't half fill, and then he'll go to work with a quiet con- science and harvest thirty bushels to the acre. His next failure he announces is from its enormous growth. He never lost a cow or a horse but that it was the best he ever had. If he sells an article and the price goes up, he is mad because the other party to the trade has made something out of a risk he dare not assume ; if the price goes down, he is nearly as mad because he has lived 80 long and hasn't learned how to do busiiless before. If his neighbor lends him a little money and then wants it back when he agreed to pay it, he feels offended, and is apt to think that all men who receive interest are pirates. His disposition is such that it makes him envious. His prosperous neighbor, who perhaps is more economical, more industrious, more temperate, or it may be, by better judgment, has outstripped him iii the race for competency, he looks upon with feelings that are not altogether friendly. He believes that all financial success in life is the result of luck, or extortion, the former of which never smiled upon him, but he is always the victim of the latter. He cannot understand that success, in its true sense, is only achieved through a reasona- ble economy, strict devotion to business, and a liberal exercise of brains. His grievances seem so hard that ho believes all occupations are arrayed against his, though tiie prosperity of both theirs and his is one and inseparable. Now 9C STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. what is the use of iiiilaining our imaginations Avith trouble which does not exist, or of mourning over that which we cannot possibly prevent. It destroys hope, slackens energy, shortens life, and makes it burdensome. The trans- position from this class to that of another is exceedingly easy. We mean the class who, though rich, are exceedingly poor. They may own houses and lands, and stock and tools, and yet they are poor. They may even possess money, and bonds and mortgages, yet all only adds intensity to their poverty. There is nothing in existence that is poorer, unless it be the man who owns nothing but thirteen children and two dogs. Too poor to put a dollar into a public benefit, whether it be a school, a church, a social gathering, a farmers' insti- tute, or any public enterprise which is to benefit the health, morals, or intelli- gence of the community in which they reside. Too poor to pay their just portion of the public tax, and the supervisor who has taken a solemn oath to perform his duty, out of sympathy for their poverty and affection for their votes, is exceedingly careful to excuse them. Grim visages of want haunt their manhood, and old age brings no remittance from their toils. With them, to accumulate is the ruling passion, and you have heard that "One ruling passion in the human breast. Like Aaron's rod, swallows up the rest." We cast no reflections upon economy, for it is one of the noblest of virtues. It is the only thing which gives men competency, their families comfort, and their old age ease. But there is a vast distinction between economy and stin- giness. The one is the very strength and stability of a nation's life, the other is the drag and hinderance to all public good. Economy fosters and supports, by a judicious expenditure, whatever tends to fill the land with comfortable homes, intelligent families and a contented yeomanry, and to establish laws which regard the rights of life and property as a sacred trust. But stinginess would refuse aid to the very means by which its own selfishness is satisfied. Economy provides the means and the disposition to build institutions of char- ity. Stinginess has no sympathy with their object, nor is willing to contribute a dollar to their support. Those who belong to this class can see no reality in the language of Pope, who exclaimed ; "Oh, Happiness! Our being's end and aim, Good, pleasure, ease, content, what is thy name?" Sordid, selfish avarice has full possession to the last. Like the skeleton that was exhumed at Pompeii, with clenched fingers around a bag of gold, they are ever grasping, even though health, comfort, pleasure, all, are alike sacrificed in the greedy race for more. How much better, it would seem, when a sufficiency had been accumulated, and the vigor of manhood had passed, should they surround their homes and firesides with the comforts which a life of honorable industry had deserved. "How blest the man who crowns in shades like these A youth of labor with an age of ease." Ambition, under the control of reason and a sense of right, is a valuable possession, but it may become a cruel tyrant when it has obtained the mastery. The ambition to add another farm to one already sufficiently large, by shoul- dering an enormous debt, a debt which must be cancelled by excessive labor, both manual and mental ; by a too rigid economy, by a manner of living which will cause your sons and daughters to dislike the farm; in short, which makes you nothing less than slaves, is an ambition we think not to be commended. FARMERS' mSTITUTES. 97 Better give your children more time to study, though you leave them an inher- itance of less acres. Instill in them habits of industry, without making it drudgery; teach them economy, without parsimony. There is another small class of farmers that we approach with feelings of the greatest delicacy, and that is tiie class known as the farmer politicians. If you suceed in finding a first-class representative of this variety you are pretty apt to find a first-class failure as a farmer. Now the faithful, conscientious study of the political (questions of the day is one of the highest duties of citizenship, that the ballot, in tlie hands of the voter, may be an instrument of good and not of evil. And for him who with- out asking it or stifling his convictions, is placed in positions of trust by the suffrages of his fellow citizens, and who fills that position to the best of his ability, we have nothing but feelings of profound respect. But there is many a farmer who has seen his family neglected, his farm become unproductive, and finally mortgaged in the petty scrabble after office. Such a one never wants office, it is true, but he never declines. He's a capital good fellow, a good hand-shaker, free with his cash, cares only for the honors; like the Irish- man who was running for the office of constable, who declared that '*he didn'nt care anything about the office, but 't would give him notoriety abroad." He feels that his time and talents belong to the public, and he fears that the public may fail to assert its owership. The man who can think and act successfully upon many things at a time is the exception and not the rule. If his mind is always dwelling upon the action of the party's caucus, it will naturally be drawn away from the care and profits of his stock and fields. The professional man who reaches eminence in his profession is the one who makes the study of that profession his principal life-work. Not that farmers shouldn't have anything to do with politics or political meetings, for that would just suit the political dead-beats ; but that there is nothing gained by being so absorbed in the petty wrangling after office, to the exclusion of everything else, that in the end they have nothing but the satisfaction of being political dead-beats themselves. Hunt out fearlessly and independently the political evils, whether they be men or theories, and apply the remedy, and you have performed the highest duty that accompaniess the ballot. With a universal disposition to first excel in some honorable employment, there will be but little danger in American politics. The slack farmer. Probably all sometimes train in his company. "With all the improvements for saving labor, still there seems to be no decrease in the amount expended. Wants have outgrown the simplicity of early days. Cares accumulate. New markets are opened, which must be supplied. One farmer must get his produce into market as cheaply as his neighbor, or fall behind in prosperity. The law of competition, though just, is rigid and exacting. The man who thinks to defy the spirit of the age will certainly be overwhelmed. He must adopt the new improvements and new methods, and raise more and better, or somebody will ride over him rous-h shod. He must measure forces with shrewd and experienced men. In the battle for bread, pluck, energy, and good judgment win the day. It is no wonder that amid all this push and bustle men sometimes feel compelled to sacrifice order and neatness. But there are those who are habitually negligent. They are forever toggling up instead of repairing or making new. Their crops are never put in in season, and they are harvested equally as promptly. They will drive stock out of tlieir crops a liuu- dred times in a year, rather than make a fence that will turn them. They won't 13 98 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. build a iriitc, though they must lot down the fence everyday. Their buildings are put up and managed on the "anything will do" princi])le. They will lose more than ten per cent on tiie capital invested in farm imj)lements by leaving them exposed to the elements, when a few days' work and a trilling expendi- ture of money will save it all. Instead of trying to get their stock to eat all they can, they try to winter them on as little as they can and have them live. They doii't believe anything pays, and conscfiuently don't want to spend much time bothering with it. Some put no thought to value upon building up and maintaining an untar- nished credit. Now a credit system has always existed, and we think, in the very nature of the case, always will, and he who fulfills promptly and to the letter, every contract that he makes, whether it be the payment of money or the completion of a bad bargain, will eventually establish such a faith in his honor and credit that even in a moneyed sense he has a most valuable posses- sion. No one whose promise is without value, can reap advantage in the ups and downs of trade, or be able to bridge over the chasms of temporary want. He can't buy nor sell and compete against integrity. He is avoided by the careful and* not trusted by the shrewd. A man can lose money by bad invest- ments and yet profit by the experience, but he can't mar his reputation and find, total recovery. If one must be slack anywhere, the matter least of all (in a business view) in which it can be afforded is a matter which affects his promises to perform. In thus referring to a few special classes of farmers, we think that the great mass of the many millions who have converted a land of forest and prairie into a land of homes have not been included. The generous hospitality and steady character of the pioneers have stamped indelibly their image upon succeeding generations. AVe believe that the science of agriculture is but little beyond its infancy, as compared with what it is yet to be. There are a hun- dred agencies at work tending towards its financial and intellectual improve- ment. The press and common school have nowhere more earnest supporters than among the farmers, while schools of industry have reached a degree of eminence that silences the vituperation of their enemies. That system of farming is no longer called successful that robs earth of its fertility and gives nothing in return ; that recompenses rich harvests by entailing upon the next generation lands which will support only a poverty-stricken people. Science and practice are working together to counteract the impoverishing system of by-gone times and restore to their native richness lands so nearly made deso- late. This means better farmers, better profits, more systematic and intelli- gent farmers. Unlike the tenant system of the old world, each owns a portion of Nature's broad domain and has a personal interest in its permanent im- provement. We need have no fear of the position of the farmer in society. He -will be measured by the same standard as other men. And that standard rightly set up is earnest effort, thorough culture and a pure morality. Mr. J. D. Corey read the following paper : HEDGE FENCES. The universal practice of the agriculturalists for ages past, is sufficient proof that some kind of fence is a necessity to the farmer. It has long since been found necessary for those engaged in tilling the soil to have some barrier to protect their crops from marauding animals, and also to restrain their own within reasonable limits, and upon their own premises. Hence, we conclude FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 99 that fences of some kind must be erected and maintained in our country, in order to raise sufficient food for its inhabitants. Tlie question then naturally arises, what kind of fences shall we build? This, I apprehend, is a very diffi- cult question to answer. Where timber of good quality is abundant, or where stone is an incumbrance to the soil, these materials might be used to good ad- vantage. But a large portion of our vast domain is almost entirely destitute of these valuable products. Even in our own State, many locations are already nearly destitute of timber, and the ruthless ax is producing sad havoc among the primeval pine forests of the northern counties. Some farmers are making ditch, and others, wire fence, but as yet no substitute has been found to take the place of the rail and board. Very few persons have any adequate idea of the immense cost of fencing the tillable lands of this country. It has been said upon good authority that the fences in the U. S. have cost more than all the buildings. At a moderate estimate they cost, annually over $150,000,000. In the State of New York, alone, more than 810,000,000 is required for their support. The amount expended in the State of Michigan every year, is prob- ably greater than the original amount paid for all the enclosed land in the State. In order to more readily appreciate this vast outlay, we will premise that every farm of ICO acres, ought to be fenced into 20 acre fields for con- venience and profit. This would require 960 rods, or three miles of fence, ■which would be twelve miles, or 3,840 rods of fence for every section of land enclosed; multiisly this by 36, and you have 432 miles, or 138,240 rods of fence in every improved township. Again multiply this by 20 and you have 8,640 miles or 2,764,800 rods of fencing in the county of Washtenaw. A few days since an intelligent farmer belonging to the Manchester club informed me that he owned twelve miles of fence which was worth one dollar per rod ; that sum probably being about the average value, would give $138,240 as the present worth of fences in this town, and $2,764,800 as the amount now invested in Washtenaw county. In this estimate no account has been taken of road fences (which are almost wholly unnecessary), or of those around gardens, yards and orchards, and in villages and cities, so that the actual value is much greater than we have computed. Now, it is very evident that the present fences around and upon our farms cannot be rebuilt with the same material without a greatly increased expenditure, in consequence of the enhanced value caused by the increasing consumption of timber. We now have nearly 100,000 miles of railroads. The annual consumption for ties alone is probably 50,000,000, or 30 years' growth of 80,000 acres of timber. To fence these roads would require 150,000 miles of fence. We have, perhaps, about the same number of miles of telegraph, which would require 1,000,000 trees, while the annual repairs must take 400,000 or 500,000 more. The little lucifer match consumes annually in its manufacture over 300,000 cubic feet of tlie best pine. The brick that are annually burned require more than 2,000,000 cords of wood, which would take the entire timber from 50,000 acres. Shoe-pegs are important articles, and to make the requisite annual supply consumes 100,000 cords of fine timber, while the manufacture of lasts and boot trees takes 500,000 cords of maple, beech and birch, and about the same amount is required for plane sticks and tool handles. The packing boxes manufactured in the United States six years ago amounted to $12,000,000, ■while the timber manufactured into agricultural implements, wagons, etc., was more than $100,000,000. Onr consumption of timber is not only constantly on the increase, but our exportation of it is also rapidly increasing. Our 100 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. staves go by the million to France annually; walnut, oak, maple and pine in large quantities to England, and docking timber to Ciiina and Japan. From tlic foregoing facts and figures, we come to the conclusion that before another generation has passed away the State of Michigan will be entirely de- nuded of its beautiful and valuable forests. What, then, shall we do to re- place and rebuild our present fences? I am of the opinion tliat we should commence immediately to grow live fence. Its cheapness, its' durability, and its perfection and beauty demand its almost universal adoption where fences are to be permanent. The expense of enclosing a farm with a hedge is less than one-half what it is with timber, Avhile they rot in a few years, the hedge will grow better for many years, and all the time, in winter and summer, iu storm and calm, remain a protection and ornament to the farm, and will prob- ably endure for generations. Experience and observation has shown us that there is no better plant for this latitude, where a fence is wanted for protection, shelter, and ornament, than the Madura, or osago orange. The maclura is a free grower, with formidable and numerous strong and sharp thorns ; it will not spread and will bear repeated and severe trimming, all of which qualities are necessary in a hedge plant. As it is much cheaper to purchase the plants for setting in the hedge row than to raise them from the seed, most farmers do not attempt to grow them. After preparing the ground by plowing a back- furrow about ten feet wide, and cultivating in such a manner as to have it in good condition for planting corn, you are ready to plant the hedge. Stretch a line along the center of the plowing exactly where you want the fence, then select those plants which are of uniform size, cut off the tops close, or within two inches of the yellow or root bark, leaving the root eight or ten inches long, then with a clean, sharp spade or dibble make an opening in the ground and insert the plants therein, close to the line, about an inch deeper than they stood in the nurser}^, and not less than twelve inches apart in the row, packing the earth firmly around every plant. To facilitate this operation you may take a board five inches wide and one inch thick, around Avhich wind your line smoothly until you have used five or six rods, paint the cord along the center of one edge of the board, and the line is ready for use. In setting the hedge place a plant against every paint mark, and you have sixteen plants in every rod, which will cost you about four cents, and it is said an able, active man will set a half a mile in a day, or 2,560 plants. After planting as above directed, the hedge should be carefully cultivated and kept clear of grass and weeds until it is at least three feet wide at the base and four and one-half or five feet high. In the spring of the second year all vacancies should be filled with plants of a greater age and better size than those iu the hedge row, and at the same time the entire hedge cut off within at least two inches of the ground. This can be well done with a sharp mower. After this cut off the strongest plants so as to keep the growth of all equal and of the same height, and continue to do this two or three times every year until you have the most perfect fence that ever adorned a landscape. If a row or two of potatoes or turnips are planted on each side of the hedge they will generally pay for culti- vating without injuring its growth. Our agricultural societies ought to give a premium for the best hedge. Hedges on lines between farms would prevent much litigation, encourage mor- ality, and in some instances, perhaps, lessen profanity. Every farmer ought to try the experiment with a few rods, and when all have permanent fences the leak is stopped that prevents the farmer's cup of bliss from running over. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 101 DISCUSSIOK. Mr. Fellows said he had faith in the utility of hedge fences, but doubted whether the method of cultivation recommended by Mr. Corey would result in a fence that would be a sufficient barrier to cattle. Mr. F. A. Gulley said they were experimenting at the Agricultural College with a variety of hedge plants, but hitherto they had not been successful with the osage orange ; it did not grow well there. Secretary Baird said that so far as he had observed comparatively few of those who had attempted to raise the osage orange hedge in the eastern part of this State had been successful. A few had persevered and succeeded to some extent, but more had abandoned the attempt after a few years. He hoped that before our timber had become so scarce that it Avould be difficult to have fences of rails or lumber, farmers would have discovered that fences were not necessary to any great extent. Mr. Corey expressed his confident belief tliat a good hedge fence could be grown in from 8 to 10 years. Mr. C. F. Field, principal of the Manchester union school, read the follow- ing paper on EDUCATION. The topic which has been assighed to me is one eminently appropriate to an occasion of this kind, whose every tendency and influence is educational in its results. Indeed institutes of this character may not inappropriately be called " Schools for the farmer." The interests and demands of education deserve to be thoroughly considered and discussed by the farmers of the whole nation. Nothing can be presented to your minds of more practical importance, or more vital to your true interests than the question: '"'How shall your children be educated and prepared for life's duties?" The broadness of the tojjic will prevent its complete discussion, comprehending as it does, the common school and the university ; the home training and the preparation for business life ; the religious training, and the industrial school, nor would it be desirable, at this time, even if possible, to enter upon so broad a discussion. Permit me, then, to limit this paper to a consideration of that part of the subject which will be of most service to them in life. And this will lead us, first to ask the question : Are mental qualifications as requisite to the farmer as to other avocations in life? This may be a fair question to consider at present, but the time is rapidly advancing when there will be no doubt of the importance of education to the farmer. The rapid strides now making in the science of agri- culture, and which such meetings as this tend largely to promote, demand more and more the skill and the administrative ability of educated minds. Even now, if we look around us upon the farmers of our acquaintance, to ascertain which of them are really successfnl, we shall invariably find it to be the men who stand above their neisfhbors in education and culture. Is it not the educated farmer Avho makes the most improvements, who produces the largest and best crops, who wields the most influence and commands the most respect, who holds your public offices, performs your public business and leads in all public enterprises? And when I use the term ''educated farmer,"' I would not be understood as referring particularly to the education acquired in the school-room, however desirable that may bo. There are many success- ful farmers whose school-days were few, and whose knowledge of text-books small. But they are nevertheless educated in the true sense of the word. 102 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Their education lias been acquired by reading and by posting themselves on current events as given them through the press, — that greatest educator of the age; by attoiidance upon public meetings held for the purpose of promoting the farmers' interests; by social intercourse, and the interchanging of views and of methods with their fellow farmers, and by that sternest of all teachers, — experience. Many a farmer has made these means supply the place of a school education so thoroughly as to raise him to a high position of confidence and esteem in the community, and to enable him to accpiire a considerable degree of wealth and worldly prosperity. But at what an expense of years of hard labor, of repeated failures, of struggling against difficulties arising fre- quently from a want of sufficient training in youth, has he finally acquired that disciplined mind which has lead him on to fortune ! Go to such men and ask them their opinion of the importance of education, and you will not find them pointing to their own prosperity as an argument against the importance of mental training. They are generally the very men who are the strongest advocates of good schools, and who are found sending their children to the union school, or to the higher institutions at Ann Arbor, Ypsilanti or Lan- sing. Having felt the want of a better education themselves, they are the more desirous of securing for their children this great advantage. But if education has been needed in the past, it will be found far more nec- essary in the near future. The time is coming when no farmer ignorant of the laws of nature, as revealed by modern science, can expect to succeed. The farmer of the future will have to know something of chemistry, of botany, of natural philosophy, and of kindred branches of science, of the laws of trade and commerce, and of political economy. If then, I have sufficiently estab- lished the importance to the farmer of education, let us consider the kind of education most needed. If I should ask whether a knowledge of Greek, Latin, French, and German, of Literature and Astronomy were essential to the farmer, I presume I should be answered by a very positive and somewhat dis- dainful '*N0." It is not these things, however desirable they may be to the scholar, that you want, but it is a solid, practical knowledge of the funda- mental branches. You want a school system which will prepare your sons for a practical farmer's life, giving them a well-balanced and practical mind, versed in all the rules and laws of ordinary business transactions, sufficiently informed to guard them against all swindlers and impostors, liberal enough to take up with all real improvements, and sufficiently acquainted with public affairs to perform aright their duties as American citizens. If I mistake not, you desire to have your daughters so educated as to enable them to adorn your homes and your social institutions by their graces and charms, and at the same time preside over the domestic duties of your house- holds in such a way as to make home the happiest place on earth to you. If then, I am not mistaken in regard to the kind of education you want for your children, it will perhaps be profitable to consider how this is to be acquired. And this is a part of the subject which demands your most careful attention, and which is far more worthy of your consideration than how to raise stock, or how to produce the largest crops of wheat and corn. Not that I would depre- ciate the importance of such topics, but what can, or at least ought, to be of deeper concern to you than the education of the rising generation, who will soon take your places on the farm, and upon whom depends the very life of the nation? For it is to the agricultural population that this country must need look for her chief support. Indeed, 'we can say without boasting, that the FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 103 prosperity of tlie whole world depends largely ou you farmers of America. You are not, like the peasantry of Europe, ground down under the yoke of oppression and povery, but you are the chief, the governing element in Ameri- can society. How, then, can you escape the responsibility of educating your children in a manner becoming their future stations? Let us, then, consider briefly the condition of our district schools, where the most of your children receive their only education. Are they doing what they ought, or what they might? Are they an object of pride to you to-day? Do you cheerfully pay your school taxes to support them? Do you go to great pains to secure good teachers for them? to build and equip comfortable and pleasant school-houses? Do you visit the schools, and do all in your power to encourage the teachers and chil- dren in their important work ? I will leave these important questions for each person to answer for himself. It has been my lot to learn something of the wants of district schools, and I have been led to feel deeply the pressing need of reform in the district school system, or, more properly, the want of system. Indeed, time will not permit me to enter into a detailed account of the mis- erable inefficiency of the present method. It is a disgrace to the farming com- munity, which, let us hope, is caused largely by inattention to the subject and not through any positive indifference to education, and I believe if the subject is fairly brought before their notice, it will be remedied. Let me, then, briefly call your attention to a few leading points which call for reform : First, The want of uniformity of text books. It needs no argument to prove the impor- tance of classification and system in any kind of business, and especially is it true of school work. Second, Want of a graded course of study, that shall be uniform throughout the township at least. There is no reason why the district schools of each township should not possess a graded and uniform course of study that shall embrace the first eight years of the child's education, giving him a thorough knowledge of the common branches, including reading, writ- ing, spelling, geography, grammar, practical arithmetic, XT. S. history, and the elements of book-keeping, and doing the work as efficiently as the union schools of the villages and cities. Such a course would do away with the necessity of sending your children to town to school unless you desire them to take a high-school or collegiate course. Third, The number of months in which school is taught each year should be lengthened and the terms should correspond to those of the union schools. The present custom in many dis- tricts is to have four months school in the winter, and three in the summer, with such long intermissions between tlie terms that the children forget, dur- ing vacation, a large share of what they have learned the preceding term, as well as lose all interest and ambition for study. Fourth, The schools should be better supplied with necessary apparatus. You cannot expect the pupils will make much progress without maps and globes, any more than you can expect to carry on your farms without plows and drags, reapers and mowers. Fifth, Good teachers are especially needed. If you employ girls of IG, or boys of ]8, to mould the minds and form the characters of your children, how can you expect satisfactory results? To iiire the cheapest teachers is generally the poorest kind of economy. Sixth, The townsliip superintendency does not accomplish for the schools what it ought. The compensation is not, and under the nature of the circumstances cannot be sufficient to enable the super- intendent to devote much time or attention to the duties of his oflice. In many townships it is well-nigh impossible to secure a person for this important 104 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE. office, whose educatiou, business, or inclination will pcimit him to accept it. We believe the territory under the jurisdiction of the superintendent ought to be extended so as to include, let us say, a representative district. This would make it possible to pay a suitable salary and secure competent persons for the otlice. We believe the autliority of the superintendent should be somewhat enlarged so as to make all the schools of each district more directly under one general and uniform management. These defects and these demands of the district schools, I have ventured to bring before you, very imperfectly I fear, but yet with a conscientious purpose to lead your minds, if possible, to dwell upon these important themes; and these suggestions 1 have offered with a conviction, based upon a careful study of the subject, of the pressing need of doing something immediately to remedy the evils of the school system. The union schools of this State are the pride of her citizens. The district schools, alas, are sadly deficient, although the prosperity of the State depends upon the work of the rural schools equally as much as upon the schools of the towns and cities. Farmers of Michigan, shall this condition of affairs continue, or will you apply the remedy? The State legislature will probably enact the proper laws bearing upon the matter, provided you bring your inlluence to bear upon them. Shall our noble State have her district schools managed systematically, economically, %nd at the same time efficiently, or will you allow them to go on in their weak- ness and inefficiency? Shall they become the training-places of the educated farmers of the future? Will you have the facilities for educating your chil- dren brought to your own doors, or will you continue to send them abroad to be educated? Do you wnsh to make the farm attractive to your children so that they will not be impelled to leave home as soon as possible, in order to satisfy their natural longings for knowledge? AVith you I leave the decision of these questions. FORENOON SESSION. Mr. Dorr read a paper on Horticulture, of which we have not the manu- script. In the discussion that followed Mr. Dorr's paper Mr. Corey doubted whether it ever paid a farmer to keep a garden. It required a good deal of attention at a time when other work was crowding, and a few dollars would purchase for family use all that farmers usually get out of their garden. Mr. F. A. Gulley thought every farmer should have a garden properly man- aged. He thought it would pay as well as anything on the farm. It was not best to attempt to raise everything, but to raise the usual variety of vegetables and small fruits in sufficient quantity to supply the family. Mrs. Samuel Cushnian read the following i^aper on HOME INFLUENCE. Home is of divine origin, and only reaches its true character and full signifi- cance when it conforms to the original appointment of the Greater; when it becomes the place of honor, of love, of authority, of obedience, and of a per- manent, beneficent, formative influence. Like all institutions, home has its external form and internal power, has its memberships, father, mother, broth- FAEMERS' INSTITUTES. 105 ers and sisters. If eacli member be engaged in the interchange of the offices of love, in teaching and learning the lessons of religion, rales of life, and in forming habits of morality and industry ; if it be the home of truth, refine- ment and simplicity of taste ; if it be beneficial in its external form and as far as practicable surrounded with the beautiful in cultivated nature, as true as "none of us liveth to himself," such a home will be the best nursery of indi- vidual character and the surest foundation of social and national life. Home, with its influences, is important because it is universal, and because the education it bestows, being woven with the woof of chldhood, gives form and color to the whole texture of life. Here the child receives its first impres- sions, its germinal ideas, developing themselves into influences that help to establish a basis for those principles which actuate his future life. Children are susceptible creatures, and circumstances, scenes and actions always impress them. As we influence them, not by arbitrary rules, not by stern example alone, but in the thousand other ways that speak through bright scenes, soft utterances and pretty pictures, so will they grow. Sports and griefs of a child seem to manhood as folly, yet amid these sports and sorrows he is cherishing the tempers which are to go with him through life. Objects which for the present agitate or delight him will pass away, but the habits of mind which they generate, the affections which they mature, are lasting. Some of our wisest and most illustrious men look back tenderly to their birthplace and love to acknowledge that in the industry and discipline of early years was laid the foundation of greatness. It is at home, if any where, that the affections receive their culture, that amiable dispositions are developed, and here all the faculties and qualities are matured which enter into the structure of worthy character. The simple lessons of home engraven upon the heart of childhood defy the rust of years and outlive the more mature, but less vivid pictures of after years. So deep, so lasting are the impressions of early life that we often see an aged man holding fresh in his recollections the events of his childhood, while all the wide space between that and the present hour seems a forgotten waste. Has not our great instructor said, "Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it." If childhood be devoted to the reasonable expansion of the physical and intellectual powers, if knowledge of duty be acquired and rightly used, will not manhood be worthy? If human nature can be so influenced and trained as to know wherein its great- est good consists, it may be presumed that this good will be sought after and obtained. True home life is made up of little events, of little actions, but may they not each have directly or indirectly some relation to those who com- pose that home? An aggregate will at last be formed by long perseverance in line upon line and precept upon precept. Who is able to calculate the extent of the influence which one gentle, loving spirit has exercised in a house- hold, shedding the mild radiance of its light over all the common events of daily life, and checking the inroads of discord and sin by the simple setting forth of "that love which seeketh not her own, but suffereth long and is kind." It has well been said that the moral influence of such examples is not alone confined to the recipient, but goes on from one to another, bearing fruit like good seed sown and reproducing itself till it is impossible in the la])se of time to calculate the good arising from it. Make home the expression of your best ideas of social life and use it as an instrument in moulding such outside life as may come in contact with it. Home circles are the little wheels that assist in the revolution of the great whole. Like individuals they have their inflence on each other, and that influ- IOC STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. ciice will have its effect beyond the precincts of home, so long as its members depend upon it for shelter and retire to its scenes daily from the perplexities of the busy life around them. If here they meet intelligence and sympathy in Avhat interest and concern them; if here they are incited to the commendable ambition which is necessary to the successful and merited acquirements of a true character, they will go out with courage in their hearts, which courage can be imparted to those with whom they come in contact; they in their tura exert each one his separate intluence, and the great whole can be easily antici- pated. It is by the strength of domestic alfection that the frame-work of society is upheld and preserved. Holland says it is through the medium of homes that the social life-blood of America is kept in circulation, and through this medium almost exclusively. Then how necessary that they should be controlled by those influences which are the natural offspring of a high and harmonious home life. Neighborhoods and communities should mean something more than a certain number of houses, a certain number of inhabitants governed by the same laws and containing equal civil burdens. They should be informed with that social, genial life in which the influence of each nature, the power of each intellect, the force of every well directed will, and the inspiration of every high and pure character should be felt by all. History teaches us that from the beginning of time, every nation has con- sisted of families; then is it not true that the hope of a nation rests on these homes, humble as they may be? Especially is this true of our Republic, where the intelligence and virtue of every citizen has a heightened relative value. Since its welfare is involved in its people, the character and habits of every member of its great family are important. Its safety may be interwoven with the destiny of those whose birth-place is in obscurity. In the homes of our country are the children, and from them go out into life men and women, and only as those homes are what they should be, will they be what they should be. Without virtue no commonwealth can exist. The nursery of this virtue is the family and if it does not take root and grow there it is in vain we look for it in riper years. Some of us may think, what share have we in the destiny of our country? How can we, in our homes, have influence there? Perhaps this illustration will convey the power of moral influence better than we can otherwise do it: Among the Alleghanies there is a small spring, — a rivulet stealing its unobtrusive way among the hills, until it spreads out into the beau- tiful Ohio. Thence it stretches away a thousand miles, having on its banks many villages and cities, many thousand cultivated farms and bearing on its bosom more than half a thousand steamboats. Thence joining the Missis- sippi, it stretches away some twelve hundred miles more, till it falls into the ocean, one of its great tributaries. So with influence, it is a rill, a rivulet, an ocean, boundless and fathomless as eternity. Perhaps we may have the same share the rill has in the river, the river in the sea? Should every little shaded streamlet tarry at its fountain head where would be the river that dis- penses fertilit\% where the ocean, bearing commerce and wealth upon its never resting tide? If these homes all through our land were to embrace right views of their station, their responsibilities and their influences, and faithfully to act in carrying those views into practice, what earthly agency could do such wide- spread, such lasting good to the interests and to the institutions of the Amer- ican people? What would wield so deep, so permanent, so universal an influ- ence as they? for they lead into the very depths, the secret places, the hidden springs of human interests and human happiness. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 107 Let us so respect tlie gifts of our bountiful Benefactor as not to divert them from their appointed use and benefit, but so improve them that our homes may- be filled with good influences; that their society, their conversation, their amusements, their ornaments and books maybe refined and pure; and all ■whose lives are associated with tliem, like living links, will connect them with the distant future, and tlirough them as through electric wires fastened to their hearts, and these homes the living battery, they may send their influence, like a living stream, far into the future, and nations feel that in them is their safety and prosperity. Mr. F. A. Gulley, foreman of the Horticultural Department of tlie Agricul- tural College, gave a lecture on "Economy in Farm Management.'' (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) AFTERNOON SESSION. Mrs. Van De Grift read a short paper on general housekeeping, giving her method of canning fruit, of performing several other household duties with a view to economizing time. She recommended to housekeepers generally a close observation of the methods of others as one of the best ways to enable us to improve our own. D. W. Palmer, Esq., read the following paper on "the best breeds of cattle fok our climate." The writer not long since found his name in a newspaper as selected to write an essay on this subject, — and all this honor and responsibility without his knowledge or consent. Who shall decide when doctors disagree ? It sometimes happens that the essayist has an ax to grind. When we talk of the best breeds then it becomes simply a question of dollars and cents. Then that kiyid of cattle which will return to the owner the greatest profit at the least exjjense is the best. Farmers and dairymen raise cattle for beef, for milk, butter and cheese, and for work. Beef \& the final destiny of all cattle. Milk is an indis- pensable article in every household, and butter and cheese are also largely con- sumed in the farmer's family and are largely an article of commerce. Oxen, when used for a farm team, are doubtless the most economical motive power a farmer can have. When the horse has become old he is of little or no value. Not so the aged ox, who, after having been a good servant to his owner during many years, is prepared for the shambles and brings his master a good price. I love to look at the sprightly Devon ox. His bright red color, his soft, silky hair, his long, sliui, erect, curved horns, clean, agile limbs, bright, sparkling eyes, his sprightly movements, and his prompt obedience to the plow boy, gains the attachment of his driver. Memory looks back over the long years when the writer was a barefooted boy, holding a wooden plow by one handle and following a pair of Devon oxen (before Jethro Wood patented a cast-iron plow.) Perliaps this is a digression, as 1 did not intend to write an eulogy on Devon cattle, as that will not grind an ax for any one here. Devon cows were passably good for milk and butter, but too small to be profitable for beef. They would thrive on short keep where other and larger cattle would scarcely obtain a living. The Hereford cattle are very uniform in color and appearance, and the cows 3 0S STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. have the reputation of being fair for milk and butter, and tlie oxen are said to bo good \vorkers after being thoroughly broken, and that they attain large size. yir. 8. I). Martin, of Clarke county, Kentucky, says the llerefords are excellent workers and pull evenly, but they are harder to break in and are apt to be more vicious than the Short-horns. I prefer the Short-horns for oxen for the following reasons : they are gentle and docile, easily broken in and managed, strong and true in pulling, are not vicious among other stock, and when they have worked five or six years are easily fitted for the butcher, who will pay a good price for them. I think I hear some one say the above is a digression, as oxen are not in fashion. Well, I am an old man and remember that in 183G there were more o:ce7i than horses attended their owners to church in Clinton and Manchester on the Sabbath, and perhaps the worshipers were as sincere then as they are in this late day of fast horses, fine equipage, satins, superfine broadcloth, and velvet cushions. Please excuse, as I have forgotten myself again. I find in the Report of the Michigan Board of Agriculture for the year 1878 an essay by Dr. James C. Wilson, manager of the Crapo farm, in which he claims they have on that farm Short-horns, Herefords, Devons, and natives, and he gives the llerefords the preference. He says they mature earlier, are more hardy and less liable to disease, are better feeders and grazers, fatten on less feed in their stalls, and keep in flesh at all seasons and when butchered produce more dressed beef to the hundred weight, and alive or dressed com- mand a more ready sale than any other cattle in the world. That ax is ground. But it came to my weak comprehension to inquire, when such efforts have been made during many years by Corning and Sothom and others, that they have not been more generally introduced in the United States. The late Hon. San- ford Howard, former Secretary of the Board of Agriculture of Michigan, was sincerely of the same opinion of the above gentleman, and had conversation with the writer on the subject, and two of our friends not far off sent by him to Canada and two stock animals Avere purchased and brought over at the time the Crapo stock came. They were beautiful specimens in their class. Several years have passed since then, but I do not see any of those beautiful white faced cattle in the yards of those gentlemen, nor in their vicinity. Jerseys and Alderneys, or Channel Island cattle, are, as their name indicates, natives of a group of islands belonging to England lying in the English Chan- nel, and about 12 miles from the coast of France. The largest island is 13 miles long by five miles broad, and is called Jersey. Constant breeding and selections in regard to the one property of milk alone, has been crowned with remarkable success. All importation of other cattle to the island was forbid- den. Some years past the Jerseys have been imported to England, and the peculiar richness of their milk so highly appreciated that many dairies keep a Jersey to every 10 or 12 cows to give character to the butter. The Jerseys are so totally unlike the other improved breeds that they are recognized at a glance, their peculiar color and deer-like heads being distinguishing marks. As ascertained by the lactometer the amount of cream varies from 19 to 25 per cent. KERRY CATTLE. The Hon. John Wentworth, of Chicago, a celebrated stock man, said: Whilst I will say that they are exactly the breed of cattle for the mountain pastures of New England, I will also say that if I lived out on the open prai- FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 109 rie, had no barn and could keep but one cow, I would prefer the little black Kerry to all others. AYRSHIRES. They are named from the county in Scotland where they originated and are chiefly bred. It is a high exposed region with bleak hill-sides and vast tracts of moorland, — climate mild and damp. In perfect keeping with this description of land is the hardy little Ayrshire, their breeders thoughtfully adapting the animal to the locality and climate where it is to exist. GALLOWAYS. The Galloways constitute one of the most important breeds in Scotland, and made its appearance within the last hundred years. This polled breed have gradually supplanted the horned cattle, being much preferred by the graziers and being docile and kindly feeders. The prevailing color is black, and the Galloway is essentially the grazier's beast. The Holderness and the Holsteins and some other breeds I shall omit, as I know of none in this vicinity. THE IMPROVED SHORT-HORN. There are two distinct classes of breeders of Short-horns. One class breed with the sole object of early maturity and a tendency to take on flesh and fat rapidly, and consequently make good show animals. The other class to have good cows for milk and butter. Of the former we always find an array at the fairs, while the latter are left quietly at home. Mr. Fish, a dairyman of Herkimer county, N. Y., recently reported to the Agricultural Society that attention has been given to good selections for milk, and the yield had been from 600 to 800 lbs. cheese per cow. Found no diffi- culty in obtaining thorough bred Short-horns. A writer records that it is because the English breeders of modern Short-horns generally prefer beef- making to milk-giving properties that they have fostered variation in favor of the one at the expense of the other, until the milk-giving quality in some fam- ilies is nearly bred out. Mr. Frances Roach, of N. Y., reported that in one respect however, we must confess the old Short-horns completely bore away the palm from their de- scendants. AYe refer to their milking quality, once the distinguishing char- acteristic of the race. The breeders of the present day have voluntarily sacrificed this valuable quality for the sake of acquiring a greater propensity to fatten, — beef, beef, has been the cry. We ourselves are of the opinion that it need not have been so utterly neg- lected as it has been, believing that in this breed, the two properties of feeding and milking are marvelously united. Such was the opinion of Mr. Bates, that eminent English breeder, who insisted strongly upon this view. Mr. John Hare Powell of Philadelphia states that from the milk of the thoroughbred Short-horn cow Belina given in three days 8 lbs. and 13 oz. of butter was made, or at the rate of 20i- lbs. per week. I found the following in a Jackson newspaper : Seven years ago last Novem- ber I purchased a heifer calf, then a few days old, of D. W. Pahner of Wash- tenaw county, out of his celebrated iiead of Durhams. There has been sold from that calf's progeny five calves, from which he realized 8280 (two of them being sold for beef), and has five head remaining valued at §500. Then I found published in another newspaper that this same man had kept an accu- 110 STATE BOARD OF AGKICULTURE. rate account of this cow from the 16th of November, 1879, to the 15th of De- cember following, with the following result : Dk. Value of grain fed during the month 13 85 Hay for one month 2 63 Total expense '. $5 47 Cr. By 45 lbs. butter, sold at 20c 19 00 By 60 qts. milk, sold at 5c 3 00 Gross receipts $13 00 Profits per month 6 53 In the month of l^Iay, and on grass feed only, our cow Duchess gave per day for seven days in succession 54f lbs. of milk, from which was made 2^ lbs. butter per day during tlie same time. Her grand-dam was a prize cow for milk and butter in Madison county, N. Y., there having been made from her milk 17^ lbs. of butter per week, and her feed was grass only. The weight of Duchess (this cow) in ordinary condition was 1050 lbs. Think it will be admitted that the milk of the above described cows would amply pay the total expense of keeping, then the value of the calf would be the profit on the capital stock invested. Is not this a fair mathematical proposition ? I have before me the record of the sale by auction of the calves of the herd of the late Edwin Smith : Belmont, $150; Fido, $130; Imperial, $305; Ward- hart, 8100 ; Young Guelph, $305. And he understood when living that the price obtained for the calves Avas the interest or the profit on the money invested. Why did some of the above sell for twice what others did? Now I perceive the subject opens so wide a field of discussion that the'grind- stone is well worn and 7ny gas and your patience will soon be exhausted. I have not spoken of the commercial value of beef, butter and cheese, and the comparative weight of the several breeds, nor of the influence of climate, care, feed, etc. And as almost every commodity is sold by weight, that after a cow is so old that it is not profitable to keep her, then when fattened she will weigh 1,600 or 1,800 pounds; and the steer that at three years old will bring down the scales at 3,000 pounds. The comparative value of the best breeds for this climate is in my humble opinion very easy to demonstrate. The principles of breeding, or the physiological laws involved in the repro- duction and improvement of domestic animals, the law of similarity, and the law of variation, each contain matter for an essay which might be interesting to discuss if time would permit. I close by using the language of Mr. F. P. Lee at the Dowagiac Institute in 1878 : What kind of cattle shall we breed : If we desire a butter-maker alone, I answer the Jersey, because we are sure of a fair quantity of an extra quality of butter ; if for milk and cheese, the Ayrshire or Holstein ; if for working oxen, the Devon ; if for beef, the Hereford. But if you want an animal com- bining all these qualities I answer the Short-horn, because there is no race of cattle that combines the qualities of labor, beef and milk in such a large FARMERS' INSTITUTES. Ill degree as the Short-horns. This has been fully tested iu this country and in England. DISCUSSION. Mr. English said he thought it was hardly correct to represent the Short- horns as affording the best combination of all the desirable qualities. He thought that the Jerseys not only produced the best milk and butter, but that they also made good beef and as cheap per pound, if not cheaper, than any other. This did not seem to be the prevailing opinion of the farmers present at the Institute. Messrs. Watkins, Cook and others earnestly defended the Short- horns, claiming for them all that had been claimed by Mr. Palmer in his essay. John T. Eraser, V. S., of New York, gave his lecture on the ''Structure and Care of the Horse's Foot." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) EVENING SESSION. K. G. Baird, Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, gave an address on "Farmer's Boys in Relation to Farming." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) Mr. James Hood read a paper relating to farm matters generally and Merino sheep specially, which afforded scope for considerable discussion. A paper was read also by Mr. Hitchcock, on the improvement and tillage of New Land. After the adoption of resolutions of thanks to the Professors and others from abroad, for their valuable assistance ; to the singers, for their excellent music, and to the citizens for their hospitality shown during the meeting, tiie Institute was declared adjourned. KOMEO INSTITUTE. This institute was held in Grey's Opera House, and although the condition of the roads was exceedingly bad, the attendance throughout was quite large. The meeting was presided over by Hon. Geo. W. Phillips, and after the usual preliminary exercises, Irving D. llanscom, president of the village of Romeo, was introduced, who gave the following opening address : Just why a lawyer, who is in no sense a farmer, should be honored with any position at a Farmers' Institute, is more than I know ; but this I do know, that I esteem it an honor, and experience a pleasure in meeting the intelligent farmers of the present day when assembled at tlieir meetiugs, whether it be at their agricultural fairs with the samples of the products of their industry 113 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. and culture, or at their Institutes, like the present, to discuss important ques- tions of a,[;riculture and stock raising, whiclv shall inure to tlio benefit of theni- selvcs primarily, and then to the world at large. And when I say to tlie world at large, I have not in any sense taken too broad a scope of the inlUience of JHtelligent farming in this country. By a reference to the statistics of exports from the United States, we find that in the year 1878, for example, the total exports were of the value of iiT23,000,000. And yet, of tliis great sum nearly 8000,000,000 was for agri- cultural products alone, being 82 per cent of the entire value of exports for that year. Thus we see how tiie industrious tillers of our soil are not only feeding 50,- 000,000 of our own people, but are adding 8000,000,000 a year to our wealth, drawn from foreign countries, to say nothing of the millions which are added almost daily to the value of our lands, by improving, beautifying, and making comfortable the farmers' homes throughout our great country. It is then, by considering the aggregate that we are only enabled, frequently, to fully realize and comprehend the magnitude of what we are accustomed to look at in detail. Even the intelligent voter who deposits his ballot at the polls, at an important political crisis, seldom stops to consider the importance of tiiat act, except in itself, as a single vote cast, of small moment in the great aggregate. So the prudent and industrious farmer, when he is enabled to take his few hundred bushels of grain or other surplus products of his farm to market, seldom looks beyond the money realized, and its contemplated uses, although he returns home fully conscious of the value of every dollar thus honestly earned by the sweat of the brow. Yet, although forgotten by him, those products help to make up the grand aggregate of supplies for mil- lions of people, and of wealth to our country. Through the influence of agricultural societies, agricultural schools, and Farmers' Institutes, and do not let me omit, by any means, the agricultural periodicals, to be a farmer is no longer synonymous with mere drudgery, in which plenty of muscle is the only requisite, and plenty of brains a superfluity. The American farmer of to day is rapidly becoming as skilled and proficient in his occupation as the skilled artisan and professional man is in his business. He is diligently and intelligently solving the problem of how to get the largest number of bushels of grain, and consequently the most money, from the few- est acres; the most money from the same number of sheep, cattle, and horses; in short, how to make the farm pay the best with the least amount of physical labor. To discuss this and similar questions, I suppose, we are assembled here to-night, and that this Institute will prove both interesting and profitable, the well-known intelligent faces before me are a most sufficient guaranty. And now', with these few informal remarks, and without keeping you longer from the enjoyment of the interesting and instructive addresses which await you, permit me, in behalf of the citizens of our beautiful village, to bid the farmers of Macomb county and their visiting friends a most cordial welcome. Hon. J. Webster Childs gave the following address on FARMEKS' ORGANIZATIONS. AVithout organization civilized society cannot exist, but anarchy and barbar- ism take its place. The great law of mutual dependence prevails throughout all nature, both animate and inanimate. Nothing exists simply for the sake of its own existence. And no created being lives that is not dependent upon his fellow beings, to some extent at least, to make his life other tlian a burden. FARMER'S INSTITUTES. 113 And in this relation of universal dependence, when applied to our race, we recognize the foundation for the doctrine of the brotherhood of man, thau which no truth is more strongly set forth in tlie volume of inspiration, or found in more glowing lines on the no less divinely written pages of the great book of nature. And as the individual man, unaided by his fellow man, is powerless to promote his own welfare, a common desire, a common purpose, and a union of action, become a necessity in promoting the greatest good of intelligent existence. And in no way can sucli union of action be secured and such desires and purposes be carried out but by the aid of organization. Civilization pro- gresses, and the well being of society is attained just in proportion as the organizations of such society are wise and well secured. In all ages of the world the first and most important organization of society lias been civil government, which has been a blessing just in proportion as in its fundamental principles and in its administration it has recognized and respected the natural God-given rights of all classes alike, and opened wide the door and made broad the field for human effort, either individual or collective, to struggle for the development and building up of the great interests of society. In promoting the social, the educational, the philanthropic and the religious, as well as the business enterprises of society, men have not been slow to recog- nize the fact that "in union is strength," and in all the past we find those of like purpose and interest taking tlie advantage, to a greater or less extent, of organized cooperation to carry out such purposes and promote such interests. Let us look back for a moment over the past century. How stupendous — almost bevond realization — have been the results of organized effort. Mission- ary societies have unfurled the banner of the cross on ten thousand hilltops, and through ten thousand heathen vales has echoed that angelic song that once waked the starry midnight on Bethlehem's plains — "Peace on earth and good will to men." Bible societies have translated God's sacred word into hundreds of languages and are carrying it by millions of volumes to every quarter of the globe, and millions of minds once benighted are to-day searching that book divine for a more perfect knowledge of the true God and the glorious plan of salvation. Tract societies have scattered their gems of moral light and truth, innumerable almost as the leaves of the forest. From thousands of benevolent and philan- thropic organizations have flowed streams of joy and plenty to innumerable homes of wretchedness and want, and caused the vail of sadness to be lifted from millions of hearts crushed and bleeding. The friends of science and learning in many parts of the world, and especially in our own glorious free country, are and have been doing much by organized effort to raise still higher the standard of education, and to bring within the reach of the humblest of American citizens the opportunities for intellectual culture. All the great moral reforms of the day by which vice is combated and virtue encouraged are being carried forward by the organized efforts of the friends of truth and good order. Through organized cooperation the sails of commerce whiten every sea, and the vast products of the earth are transported from land to land and the wants of the nations supplied. Within the past half century in our own country more than 70,000 miles of railroads have been built, opening thoroughfares for transportation in every direction through our vast territory, and spatniing the continent from ocean to ocean. A hundred thousand miles of telegraph wire furnishes a track on wliich the lightning may bear our mes- sages and do our errands. And in fact those engaged in everv department of 15 114 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. business, and in every profession, have long since recognized the advantages of cooperation, and by organization in various forms have developed and built up the interests with wliich they were more particularly connected. But in looking over the liistory of the ])tist one very remarkable fact is brought to our attention, that while all other classes and interests have thus been calling organization to their aid, one class, more numerous perhaps than all other classes combined, whose occupation as tillers of the soil lies at the foundation of the very existence of society, and in whose success the world is as much interested, to say the least, as in any other, has never to any extent attempted until very recently to develop and build up the great interests of agriculture and those connected therewith by organized, cooperative eifort. Lying at the foundation of state and national wealth and greatness, — developing and producing to a very large extent the wealth of the world, — still those con- nected with agriculture have had little to do, directly, with shaping the politi- cal or controlling the business affairs of society. AVhile the ignorant man could be a farmer, and in some cases a successful one, still in no occupation or profession was there a necessity for more thought, a clearer judgment, or a more thorough knowledge of nature's laws in order that the greatest success might be attained, and yet until very recently we have had few text books or schools particularly designed to fit the farmer for his occupation. And what was worse still, a public sentiment which has always prevailed where despotism reigned was fast gaining ground in our own land, that the tiller of the soil needed but little mental culture. So general had this sentiment become that farmers themselves had come almost universally to adopt it, and until within a few years, nothing was more common thau to hear farmers sneeringly speak of "book-farming" not only as of no value, but as a thing to be despised. And as the sons of the rural home began to look forth upon the active scenes of society, and to choose tiieir life-work, mental culture, a liberal education, and if possible four years in classic halls, was thought important for such of them as designed to enter the professions, or engage in some of the more popular business pursuits ; but if perad venture anyone or more of those sons was to be "nothing but a farmer," if he could read, write and cipher a little, that was all that was thought neces- sary. Not only in our own State, but wherever in our country schools were established, the special design of which was to teach science as adapted to agriculture and the mechanic arts, some of the most bitter opposition that such schools had to encounter was from farmers themselves. From the stand- point of to-day it is easy to see what were the natural results of such a public sentiment, both ujoon farmers themselves and upon their occupation. As a class, although many among them were men of superior native ability and sound judgment, very few came forward as leaders in society, or occupied posi- tions of honor or trust, and although by far the most numerous class in com- munity, they had little to do directly in giving shape to the affairs of society. The rural homes which should be, and may bo, beautiful and inviting even if humble, lacked to a great extent those evidences of culture which an intelli- gent and refined taste could easily have thrown around them, and they came to be considered, especially by the young, as places of drudgery and toil, and the life of the former as undesirable as compared with the opportunities of the village and city. Until within a score of years there was comparatively little improvement made in farm machiner}-, and our system of agriculture had been to an alarm- FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 115 ing extent, a lancl-iinpoverisliing system. It is not many years since New England agricnlture furnished an abundant supply for her own consumption; some of her States raising quite a surplus. Well do we remember when New York, the great empire State, with her Genesee valley, was considered the granary of the countr}^ — when the overflowing storehouses of Pennsylvania sought an outlet for her large surplus, and when the virgin lands of Ohio, Avliose richness was then considered inexhaustible, were looked upon as the far west. How is it now? New England feeds her population from her own soil only about two weeks of the year, — where once luxuriant crops of waving grain were seen, now almost barren sterility reigns, — pastures that once fat- tened well a score of bullocks for her markets, will not now furnish feed for more than ^ of that number, — thousands of her large farm houses have been taken down, the barns either taken away or standing empty and in dilapidation, — and there are tens of thousands of acres of her hillsides and valleys from "which rich harvests were once gathered, that the plow-share will never disturb again, but which are rapidly growing up to forests. The broad fields of New York, especially her grain-growing sections, have lost their original fertility, yielding but comparatively small returns for their culture ; so that from her own acres she is able to feed her own population but three months in the year. Pennsylvania furnishes not more than one- fourth the amount of food demanded by her own people, and in Ohio, as well as some others of the western States, the great question of the day is, — how shall we replenish, and return to their original fertility a comparatively ex- hausted soil? Another disastrous result that naturally followed as the effect of such a pub- lic sentiment in regard to agriculture and its votaries, was that the attention of the more educated and intelligent was turned to other pursuits. The terms, *' plain honest farmer," and "horny-handed son of toil," carried with them, especially to the mind of the young, the idea that labor was a disgrace, and as society in general was advancing in wealth and culture, the laboring classes were as rapidly as under our free institutions they could be, being fitted for, and assigned to a lower social plane, and the occupation of the farm, and the labor of the kitchen, — than wliich no department of human employment is more important to society, and none should be more honorable, — were shunned by our young men and women, not only as places of drudgery, but as less hon- orable than other occupations, and they were led to seek their life-work in, what appeared to them the more gentle, though over-crowded professions and pursuits. Another attraction that the city and village had, especially for the young, was their superior social advantages. The rural home, from the very nature of the occupation, must be to a great extent isolated, and in the absence of any organization to bring farmers and their families together socially, there "was comparatively little opportunity for that social intercourse and culture that adds so much to life's enjoyments. But a great change is taking place; much has already been accomplished, due to a very great extent to organiza- tion among farmers. First came our agricultural societies, with their annual fairs — organizations scarcely known a quarter of a century ago, or if existing then they had attained very little importance. Now we have our State, district, county, and in some cases township societies and fairs, where the results of the labors and experiments upon the farm and in mechanic arts, especially such as are immediately connected with agriculture, are brought together and com- IIG STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. pared; the wisest nianagcnient of the most e.xpericncetl, as seen in the best results, is made known to all antl commended, and the cause of less favorable results docs not pass unobserved. The superior merits or the defects of farm machinery are pointed out and carefully considered, resulting in still greater improvements. These fairs call out the largest collections of people, both at the State and at the county exhibitions, that are found together during the year. AVe have but to comjiare the exhibitions made at our State fair twenty or twenty-five years ago, with their very limited premium lists, and their com- paratively meager show of stock and implements, as well as farm products, with the display of last year, w'ith its more than 5,000 entries, its acres of farm machinery, with its more than a thousand head of splendid cattle and horses, representing all of tiio most improved breed, its over 300 sheep that would not suffer in comparison with that class of stock in any State or coun- try, its more than 150 magnificent swine, its vast halls filled with a grand array of products from the farm, the dairy, the orchard, the garden, and the green- house ; with the equally attractive display witnessed in the halls of machinery, manufacture and the fine arts. In a word, take that fair ground, with all its exhibits and appointments, and with its more than 50,000 people at once thronging through its vast halls and over its entire area, and the scene speaks in more glowing terms than words can of the rapid advance that is being made in agriculture. And what is true of our State is equally true of the most of our district and county fairs, according to the territory they represent. Here and there have been organized and maintained farmers' clubs — would that they had been more numerous — an excellent instrumentality for the awakening of thought and a comparison of views and experience among our farmers, and wherever they have for a long time been actively maintained the results have been of very great advantage to the interests of agriculture. The last and most important organization among farmers, is the Grange, which although it has had an active existence of less than ten years, has ex- tended into every State and nearly every territory of our country, — and num- bers its membership by hundreds of thousands, — an organization which in its declaration of principles and objects, as set forth by the National Grange, has for years challenged the criticism, and commanded the respect of all classes who have given them a moment's reflection, — its teachings are ennobling, — its object is to benefit the great producing class, socially, intellectually, and pecuniarily. The well conducted Grange or Farmer's Club, brings to rural life that oi:)por- tunity for social culture and enjoyment that has long been a felt need, — ^bring- ing farmers and their families together in fraternal relation, where the ties of a true friendship become strong and lasting. Where all are taught that honest and useful labor is honorable, — that no occupation is more noble or ennobling than agriculture when properly viewed, and in an intelligent manner prose- cuted, — that no home can be made the abode of more true delight than can the home of the farmer, — that moral and intellectual worth, and not wealth alone, should be the passport not only to social position, but also to positions of honor and trust. These opportunities for acquaintance and social enjoyment among farmers are not confined to the subordinate Grange, but are widely extended by means of the county. State, and National organizations, and the many "harvest fes- tivals," and other similar gatherings, where farmers and their families come together in large numbers for social enjoyment and intellectual improvement. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 117 Prominent among the important features of this organization, is the oppor- tunity it affords to the farmer for intellectual culture. As it meets from week to week, it is to all who attend, a constant educator in parliamentary practice, and in the proper manner of conducting deliberative bodies, — an important department of education in which the farmers of our country have, in the past, been very deficient, but in which to-day there is no one class of our citi- zens better posted than are the members of this order. Then also the whole range of questions immediately connected with the interests of agriculture are, from time to time freely discussed, — the causes of success and the reasons for failure in any and every department of agriculture are carefully considered and noted, — the comparative value and peculiarities of different breeds of stock, — what crops are best adapted to the soil of any given locality, and how best to grow them, — the particular merits or demerits of different farm implements, — in fact, every subject connected with the farm, the orchard, the dairy, or the household, are thoroughly canvassed, — views compared, facts given, and the results of experiments brought forward. Thus an ability to publicly communicate their views to others in an intelligent and instructive manner, is attained by those who had heretofore been entirely un- accustomed to do so, — thought is awakened and stimulated, and emulation in their calling excited. From the ripe experience and mature judgment of those who have for a long time made any given branch of farming a specialty, their associates gather a large amount of valuable practical information ; and as agriculture opens the broadest fields for thought and investigation, when once the mind is awakened to the importance and dignity of the calling, intelligent labor becomes less a drudgery and more interesting. A desire for more knowl- edge is stimulated, the best writings upon agriculture are sought after, libra- ries principally of an agricultural character are being collected in many of our Granges, agricultural papers are better patronized and more carefully read, and Farmers' Institutes, a recent feature that indicates the intellectual awak- ening among farmers, are highly appreciated and numerously attended. A more intimate acquaintance is growing up between our scientific and our prac- tical agriculturists, and our agricultural colleges are constantly growing in l^opular favor, and fast rising to take prominent positions among the most im- portant and popular educational institutions of our land, and agriculture and its intelligent votaries are rapidly advancing to that position in popular esti- mation, that to it, and them, rightfully and justly belongs. Never, probably, in the history of any country has there been in the same length of time so wonderful an advance in the labor-saving character and practical utility of farm machinery, so great improvement in the stock upon the farm, or in the general character of the agriculture of a people, as has been made in this country, especially in the great grain, meat and wool pro- ducing west, during the past ten or fifteen years. A member of the British government, who was better acquainted with the past history of American agriculture than with its present character, stated some time since that "although America could now flood tlie world with her surplus productions, delivering both grain and meat in English markets and upon the continent cheaper than European agriculture could produce them, very much to the detriment of the farmers of those countries, still in his judgment this state of things could not last more than a generation or so longer, for American agriculture was a land-impoverishing system, and judging the future by the past, it would not be long before the vast grain-growing sections would 118 STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE. become comparatively exhausted ami would not produce more tliau would be required to feed her own rapidly increasing population." A French writer has also expressed the same opinion. Such a criticism would have been just, and such a proi)hecy likely to be fulfilled as things were a few years ago, but v,'e trust — we know — that a change is taking place; we are becoming better farmers, keeping better stock, using more perfect machinery and more of it, more judiciously combining stock-raising and grain-growing, more carefully saving and more wisely applying fertilizers to the soil, and in numerous ways more intelligently recognizing the requirements of tliose great laws of nature, a compliance with which so surely underlies our greatest success as farmers. The fact that we are able to respond to the demand that comes from the emjity granaries of Europe, and for their cargoes of gold to ship them our sur- plus wheat by hundreds of millions of bushels, is not a result alone of our largely increased cultivated acreage, but of the gratifying fact that we are, by a more intelligent and better system of agriculture jjj'odiccmg much more to the acre. Such is the fact as shown by statistics throughout nearly the entire grain-growing sections of our country, and especially is it the case in our uoble Michigan, where, even during the past six years of jianic, while the financial coast has been thickly strewn with the wrecks of the shattered fortunes of merchants, manufacturers and others, agriculture has nearly doubled the pro- ductions of the State ; we have learned lessons not only in agricultural science but in economy, and diminished the sum total of our indebtedness. The real wealth of our farmers has increased, and what is better still, we have, by increased intelligence, become better farmers, a fact shown by the better con- dition of our farms, the greater evidences of culture and refinement that is seen about our homes, our greatly improved stock, and our largely increased product per acre. These and many other results that might be enumerated are very largely due to the influence of farmers' organizations. FORENOON SESSION. The first paper of this session was by Mr. C. B. Kidder on FARM DRAINAGE. While presenting to you a few thoughts on the subject of farm drainage, you will please bear in mind that they are the views of a comparatively inexperi- enced farmer, who came here rather as a learner than as a teacher. It seems to be the almost universal idea among farmers that the cost of drainage is so great and the profit so small that only those who have a great amount of capital can afEord to drain their lands, and even those only when the land is remarkably wet, such as a swamp or sink hole ; that when the farm is clear of all places where water would stand upon the surface of the ground through the greater part of the year their duty in that direction is fulfilled and nothing more is needful ; but not so. The farm should certainly be clear of all such places, but there are principles of drainage beyond this that many farmers very little think of. Underdrains not only rid the land in times of freshet of ex- cessive dampness by conducting it away, but in times of severe drouth they relieve its dryness by rendering the soil loose and porous, so that it is permeated by FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 119 the air, which carries with it from distant bodies of water a great amount of moisture, wliich is readily seen by the great amount of dew deposited during a summer night. The porosity of tlie soil permits it to absorb and retain the moisture thus received from the air, as a sponge retains water from a dish, and as the parched rootlets extend their eager mouths in every direction their thirst is quenched and they revel in the moisture and send up fresh supplies to the branches above, invigorating the whole plant. Thus we see the double appli- cation of underdrains renders them a guard not only against excessive damp- ness, but also a great protection against excessive drouth. I have in my mind an old and experienced farmer whose opinion is held in esteem by his neighbors, who will not cultivate his corn in times of great drouth, on the theory that the damp earth being turned up by the cultivator is exposed to the sun and so dried and deprived of what little moisture there is in the soil. I do not set lightly aside the experience of many years, but I do think this man greatly in error. The last summer was, as you all know, one of great dryness. I cultivated my corn as often as it was possible, and in the fall this man had occasion to come to my field, and he made the remark, ''How nice your corn looks; why, you have a good crop here !" I said noth- ing, for he knows my views already. My corn was barely a half crop, but still I think much better than it would have been without cultivation. Deep cul- tivation on heavy clay soils may do a great deal in this direction and have in some instances the same effect, but there come many times when the deep- est cultivation is not sufficient. If such soils were cultivated to the depth of 1-^ or 2 feet (which I have never seen), and the soil left mellow over the entire surface to that depth, it would require an immense amount of rain to saturate it, but even then, when the snow went off in the spring, or at any time when they became saturated, the excess of moisture would have to be evapora- ted from the surface, which is a slow operation and would require several weeks and put the farmer so much behind time in his operations upon it. Even if the soil were cultivated to this depth there would be a gain of several weeks' time every spring by draining it, which gain is no small advantage to the tiller. Furtliermore, the owner of such land while waiting for his ground to be- come dry becomes anxious to see his crops growing, and many times before it is dry enough he begins work upon it, and puts the seed for various crops into cold, clammy clay where it will not readily germinate and some of it will die and decay, while the remainder will put forth very feeble yellowish green shoots. If, again, later in the season we glance over his field, we shall see a thin spindling crop, anything but profitable and satisfactory to the farmer, anything but encouraging to future exertions. On well drained fields work can be commence early in the season, the seed can be sown in warm mellow soil, germination immediately takes place and is followed by a strong, vigorous growth, which almost always insures a bountiful harvest. By walking over the ground in the spring through which drains have been cut, I have been surprised by the difference in the feeling and appearance of the soil. When approaching a drain if the ground be plowed, you can notice instead of the hard solid feeling to your foot as you step upon it, that it begins to feel more loose and mellow, and that when the lumps have been left stick- ing up in plowing they assume a grayer or lighter appearance than the harder heavier ones near by. Later in the season when the hot drying rays of the summer sun have beaten upon it for a time near the drain, it will have the same mellow feeling as in the spring, while the_uadrained parts will feel harsh and crusty and full of hard lumps. 120 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. I have two i)iecos of land joining each other witli only a fence between them, one of which has been cropped for a number of years; tlie other on account of dampness has never been cropped till lately. A few years ago I cut several drains through the damp piece containing three acres, and imniediately com- menced cropping it. It has since yielded very large crops of corn and oats. One year oats were sown upon both pieces and the result was, on the damp piece over GO bushels per acre while on the dry one about 30 was all I got. Here we see a piece of laud that as it naturally was yielded only grass and that not so well as now, brought to grow various kinds of crops at more than double the rate of the dry piece. There is also another advantage, that a change of crop can now be given to both pieces which could not be done be- fore. An incident might be mentioned here concerning one of the drains. In its course it passed a willow tree at a distance of about 15 feet from its base, and the ilne roots from the tree completely filled the three-inch tile in two years so that it was necessary to take up the tile and clear it for a distance of over 3 rods. These roots were very fine, thread-like fibers, and in number simply countless. They came into the tile at every joint and ran with the current until the tile was full. Since this experience I allow no willow tree to grow near a drain. In draining a farm there should be some system in view so that every tile may drain as great a surface as possible. The cost of drainage is an item worth considering, and drains should be carefully planned so as to reach the desired end with the least outlay of labor and expense. I know a farm of 80 acres upon which there is considerably over three miles of drain, and still a large part of it is without drains. There are places where the drains converge to a point something in the form of the spokes of a wagon wheel ; other places where for some distance they approach each other and then run so near together for a distance that one drain might do the work of two. This is a waste of labor and expense. If the owner had had in view some system at the commencement and as fast as was practicable followed out that system, it seems to me the same amount of drains might have done much more good. The system need not necessarily be completed at once, but may be advanced toward completion with each additional drain as circumstances allow. The different conditions under which drains must be built, and the difference in the lay of the land as we say, will make it impossible to map out a series of drains that would suit every farm. The owner must use his judgment and build where he thinks best ; but as a general rule I may say that one large drain should be cut running across the foot of the incline to be drained, and large enough to carry the water from the entire system, then at various intervals branches may be constructed. The drains should as far as possible be without angles, and as nearly parallel to each other as practicable throughout their en- tire length ; the branches should not be joined at right angles to the main line but should join it obliquely. The branches should run directly down the slope to be drained. A very little fall is enough to form a swift current in a drain cut in a straight line. The fall of some of the great rivers of the world is surprisingly small. The Amazon river of South America has only 13 feet fall in the last 700 miles of its course, — less than one foot fall in fifty miles, — yet it has a current strong enough to carry an amount of sediment into the sea that colors its waters for a distance of 300 miles from its mouth. The entire fall of the Mississippi river, with its length of 4,100 miles, is only 1,500 feet, and part of this is lost in cataracts and rapids. Warren says a declivity of three inches per mile is FARMERS' INSTITUTES, 131 enough to give a velocity to running water of three miles per hour, and three feet per mile in a straiglit, smooth channel makes a mountain torrent. The entire fall of the Volga river, with a length of 2,800 miles, is only G33 feet, which gives only about an average of '7^ inches per mile for the entire length. The reason of the slow current of some of our great rivers is their crookedness. They continually come in contact with their Ijanks, retarding their velocity. Their shallowness also i)i many places causes much friction upon the bottom and slackens their currents. The velocity of a stream is dej)endent upon the form of its channel, the slope of its bed, and the volume of water. We notice that the velocity of a stream is always greatest when it is narrow and deep, also that it is greater in the middle of the stream than upon either side. This should teach us the form of tile to nse in drains, because the greater the velocity the less likely is a drain to become stopped. The tile should not be flat nor bread, but narrow and deep. The shape of the channel should be that of an egg with the Jiarrow end down, so that when the drain is not full the stream will occupy a small narrow channel, and therefore by concentrating its force carry along what sediment there may be in the water to the mouth of the drain, which should always be watched and kept clear so that the delivery may not be retarded. The depth of drains is a matter for discussion. I think that depends some- what upon the nature of the soil, but should never be less than two feet. If the soil is of a loose nature then the drain should be deeper than in a firm soil. I cut my drains three feet deep. When the earth is not firm in the bottom of the drain I usually lay the tile upon strips of board. Some people say that it is just as well and much cheaper to be careful not to disturb the bottom and lay the tile directly upon it and cover it immediately. All soils are not bene- fited by draining. Mistakes are sometimes made and money uselessly expended upon drains dug in land that might be said to be already naturally drained. Open, porous, sandy soils, with gravelly or sandy subsoil may be placed in this class ; also gravel and sandy loams resting upon a hardpan subsoil, if the hard- pan is near enough to the surface to be reached and broken up with the subsoil plow. Soils that are very compact, or shallow soils, resting upon clay or a thick hardpan subsoil need to be drained. The effect of the excess of water in this soil is to render it hard and unproductive. Hard, wet soils may be full of the elements of plant food and still be almost barren. If the tiny rootlets cannot penetrate the soil and gather together a sufficient store of nutriment to nourish the plant the plant must die. The excess of water excludes the air and keeps the soil cold, and the more vegetable substance there is in such soil the more compact will it be, and it becomes sour, heavy, cold and unprofitable to work. The application of fertilizers to such soils will not render them pro- ductive any more than draining a sand bed would make it fertile. The only remedy is to remove the surplus water and the change in the fertility will at once be perceptible. In such cases any man can afford to drain, and the poorer he is the better can he afford it, for he cannot afford to work a cold, sour, wet peat bed and receive no returns when by the expense of a few drains his income might be doubled every year. Drainage is indispensable to successful agricul- ture where the water of stiff clay lands or swamps is retained by impervious subsoils or other causes. Very many soils are benefited by draining, and some must be drained in order to be of any profit. Alluvial soils as a rule are among our most fertile soils, and also are among our wettest soils. They consist of finely divided matter thoroughly commingled. They arc found at the mouths -of rivers, along their valleys and in our swamps, and are frequently called bot- 122 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE. torn liviuls. 111 these soils drains may be cut very deep, as they are often quite porous and sometimes very deep. They also by working settle and become lirmcr, so that a few years after a drain is cut if it be dug uj) it will be appar- ently not as deep as originally dug. I liave seen advertised very strong and costly ditching machines which do the work of many men with groat ease and accuracy. I have also read of various curiously shaped implements to be used by hand for digging ditch and laying tile, etc. The machines do very well for those who can afford them, the hand implements act as good money-getters to the manufacturer; but it seems to me the best ditching ajiparatus for the common farmer is a good, strong, round-pointed, long-liandled shovel, and a good sharp spade in the hands of a strong active man, fortified three times a day with pork and beans. The bot- tom of a drain should be as uniformly graded as possible, for if there are some places where the current is very slow, the sediment tiiat may be in the water is likely to stop and form a stoppage in the drain. A good way to get an even grade in the bottom is to set two stakes in the drain not far from each other, and stretch a strong cord from one to the other directly over the middle of the drain. By the use of a level determine the proper fall for tlie drain to have and give the cord the same fall and draw it tight. Get a stick that will reach from the cord to the bottom of the ditch, and by measuring it at differ- ent points the drain may be made with a fall exactly uniform, and exactly the same as the fall shown by the cord. For example, if the cord is four rods long and the drain is to have a fall of one inch per rod, one end of the cord should be four inches higher than the other end. In laying tile be particular to make close joints, not leaving any places for the water to get in, that will take care of itself. Begin at the lower end of the drain to dig, but at the upper end to lay the tile so that no dirt can wash into it as the work proceeds. The health of the family is also an item worth considering in this connec- tion. Many a man has paid out more for the services of a physician to cure diseases caused directly or indirectly by his neglect to construct sufficient cel- lar or smk drains than many times the cost of such drains. No family can enjoy the highest degree of health for a long series of years if they must con- tinually inhale the odors of the unsightly slops that are constantly collecting and being thrown out from the kitchen. If these (as is too often the case) are thrown upon the ground near the door, there is constantly emanating therefrom the germs of disease which are often inhaled by the occupants of the house, and often (if they do not actually shorten) cripple their lives and render them unable to enjoy the good things which they have. The cellar may be the receptacle into which is drained the surplus water in its vicinity, where it will remain a long time and continually send up vapors loaded with deadly poison, to be introduced through the lungs to the blood, and may inau- gurate a long train of diseases sometimes ending in death. This may be obvi- ated and should be by supplying an outlet. The well should also receive some attention. This may be so located as to receive the dregs of the barnyard or the soakings from the kitchen slops ; and indeed many times when we suppose we are drinking pure water, could we be enabled to see what the microscope could reveal, should we be shocked with its impurities and filth. It can need uo argument to convince any thinking man that to imbibe poison as often as we drink (be the quantity ever so small) will, in time, have a most dangerous in- fluence upon the health. It seems to me were the practice continued through a long series of years the strongest constitution must succumb to its influence. I have uo doubt that many of the fevers of which we hear are directly caused FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 123 by either inhaling or drinking such impurities, which with proper care might easily be avoided. The location of the house should be selected with the most scrupulous care, for in the house we spend by far the larger part of our lives. Every night when we lay ourselves down to repose, and nature strives to undo the evils we have wrought upon our bodies through the day, we can put ourselves under the influence of pure air or impure vapors, as we please. Every night when nature strives to build up and strengthen us for the coming day we can supply her with the pure air of heaven filled with life-giving power, or we can load her down with accumulated filth from which she must select her material for present use. If I think aright, man was not intended to spend his life in mis- ery. What a pitiful sight it is to see a liuman being chained to disease with which he must drag out a miserable existence ! Man was not so intended. He was made for a purpose, and Avhat a gratifying sight it is to see one who has fulfilled tiiat purpose and is ready, as testify his whitened locks, to put this world behind him, yet in the full possession of his mental and a goodly proportion of liis physical powers ! Such is the result of health, which not every one can have, but by looking well to our surroundings we can materially increase the chances for it. Again I say don't neglect the sink or cellar drains. When John Johnson of New York, that old pioneer of underdraiuing, com- menced to drain his lands his neighbors laughed at him for burying his crockery under ground where he never would see it again; but that crockery has many times been resurrected since then in his multiplied bushels of grain and has helped materially to gain for him a lasting and a coveted position among the grandest farmers of the age. How his bosom must have swelled with com- mendable pride as he gazed upon his crops, which far outstripped those of his neighbors, and thought of his grand victory over those waste lands of nature. Not only are grains of all kinds benefited by drainage, but fruits, and flowers, and grasses, and trees, and shrubs, and herbs of all descriptions flourish many fold better with warm, dry feet in the spring, and warm, moist ones during the severe drouth of nearly every summer of our lives. A revolution in our cultivation must be wrought if we would keep pace with other trades and sci- ences. Never has farming made such rapid strides in improvement as during the past few years, and I verily believe that in the near future we are to see wonderful improvements. The idea that any fool can become a farmer who has not wit enougii to live at any other business is fast losing ground, and we, if we would succeed, must cultivate our lands more thoroughly. It is said between the years 1856 and 1863 that the United States and Russia exchanged places in regard to the amount of wheat exported to England. In 1856 Russia supplied England with 44-100 of the total import; but in 18G3 the United States supplied 44-100 and Russia only 21-100, and among the direct reasons of this change is that in the United States more skill is used in producing it. The ellect of this is very disastrous to Russia, and one after another of her once flourishing business houses is falling in ruins. Of late the traffic in meat between the United States and Europe has assumed new features and the income to the people of this nation therefrom is most gratifying. Let us as we rejoice at our success beware lest we too fall. If we would retain our high position in respect to other nations in supplying the world with provisions we must plow deeper, we must fertilize more plentifully, we mnst cultivate more thoroughly, and we must drain our farms; then, with the blessings of our Father in heaven, who sends the sun and the rain with reasonable prospects, may we look for bountiful harvests, happy liearts, and larger profits. 124 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. DISCUSSION. Mr. l")ay said ho had a Hat field sixty rods long with an open ditch with about a foot fall and at the lower end the water would always stand above the tile. He asked if such a field could be effectually drained? ;Mr. Leonard said that his experience was that tile could be laid nearly level, or with a slight descent, but that in such cases the outlet must be free. John Paton, of Armada, had used lumber to make drains, and asked if it would not auswer fully as well as drain tile? C. B. Kidder replied that he knew of no material as cheap, durable and effective for drainage as tile. He paid thirty-two cents a rod for the tile. To make a drain with lumber in the way proposed by Mr. Patton would require from twenty-four to forty-eight feet per rod. Farmers could estimate for themselves the relative cost. Tile would last forever if well burned ; they were porous, and could easily be taken out to permit of cleaning if it were found necessary. The whole ditch need not be redug, but here and there an opening made would answer every purpose of cleaning. K. G. Baird, in answer to Mr. Day, said the experience of William L. Web- ber and others in the Saginaw Valley was that the slightest possible fall was sufficient. He thought beyond all question that tile were the cheapest and best material for drains. Mr. Gulley, of Dearborn, advocated the round or cylindrical tyle. In answer to questions he said that it would pay to drain any land that held water within less than four feet of the surface. It might not be so desirable to drain gravelly soil, but it was beneficial to do so. A drain laid level would work effectively, even if there was not a running outlet. The pressure or head of water above the outlet was sufficient to clear the drain and force the water through. Tile drains should be laid about four feet below the surface. It was not necessary to go below four feet, and anything less than that was not so good as the greater depth. Small tile were relatively better than large ones, because with an equal flow they cleaned themselves better of silt. It was desirable to have silt basins at proper intervals to facilitate cleaning. The flow could be made useful in ditching; first the ordinary flow, and next the subsoil flow. The drain should run directly up and down side hills. Oblique drains would not answer. He thought Mr, Day's field could readily be drained, and would be immensely improved by it, if the water at the outlet disappeared at any time during the year. J. Webster Childs said three inches to the mile was fall sufficient, if the tile were accurately laid. He preferred tile beyond all other materials, but had used oak lumber, sawed five inches wide, inch and a half thick, leaving, when put together, a channel two inches wide and five inches thick. He did not know how long it would last, but it would at any rate last long enough to pay where tile could not be procured. It was not to be regarded as equal or com- parable to tile, but was a tolerable substitute for them. He agreed with Prof. Gulley that four feet was the best depth for a drain, but had found good effect from drains but two feet deep, or even one foot and a half, where the land would not admit of making them deeper. President Abbot vouched for Mr. Gulley's great experience and success in draining, both on his own farm and at the Agricultural College farm. In answer to questions Mr. Gulley said hard burned tile, laid but a short distance below the surface in "cat-holes," and carrying a stream of running water, would not be injured by frost. In such cases the water would not FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 125 freeze. To prevent the roots of trees from getting into and obstructing drain s in orchards colhirs should be put over the joints. Hon. Chas. Andrews of Armada read a short but excellent paper on SHEEP, in which he claimed that they were among the most profitable stock a farmer could keep. Besides tlie direct cash return from wool and increase, much advantage was derived from them in keeping down brush and weeds, which. they did in feeding. There never was a time when fine wooled sheep were more in demand than now. The careful breeder can find a ready market at remunerative prices. He believed it was more profitable to keep comparatively small flocks, and had a decided preference for the fine-wooled variety. DISCUSSIOK". K. F. Johnstone thought all breeds of sheep were profitable to Michigan. The farmers of this State, by habit, were partial to fine-wooled sheep. The time might come when long-wooled and good mutton sheep would be more desirable here than at present. Long-wooled sheep could not be profitably raised in this climate without the use of the turnip. Therefore, to introduce different breeds into general use in Michigan would require a change in culture, or rather in crops. The fed sheep in Michigan brought rather a better price in New York than any other. L. Parmalee, of Armada, believed the grade sheep were the most profitable for the farmers of this section. Mr. Flagler, of Richmond, in view of the prices now current, sheep against sheep, believed the fine-wooled sheep the most profitable. Mr. Reed, of Bruce, thought any breed of sheep could be made profitable, but gave his preference to the fine-wooled breeds. Mr. Bentley believed that the ordinary breeds of sheep — those without a "record in the herd books" — were as profitable as any. Geo. W. Phillips, President of the Michigan State Agricultural Society, said his experience prepossessed him in favor of fine-wooled sheep. Their wool was most in favor with manufacturers. Mr. Norton, of Oakland county, also expressed a strong preference for fine- wooled sheep as the most profitable. R. G-. Baird believed something of a change was now taking place in regard to choice of varieties. In the large ranches of the west wool could be pro- duced cheaper in proportion than here, but such was not the case with mutton. The coarser grade sheep could not be so successfully raised in large flocks. There was a growing demand for the mutton sheep, and the demand would be supplied. AFTERNOON SESSION. R. Jennings, V. S., of Detroit, gave an excellent lecture on the diseases of the horses' feet and limbs, with many valuable suggestions in regard to treat- ment. The lecture was full and minute, and illustrated by many specimens of sound and diseased hock and other joints. Dr. Jennings declared against the use of clips on shoes, and showed by hoofs and bones that in the course of time 12G STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. they distorted the growth of the hoof and produced a decay of the interior bone of the hoof which extended from the toe upwards. lie exliibited speci- mens which revealed a groove deep enough to coutahi half the linger, lie found that horse-shoers, as a class, had set notions of their business. They considered that they had learned their trade and resented anything that looked like advice. Few of them had correct ideas of the structure and anatomy of the horse's hoof, and most of them i)ersistently worked against nature in their shoeing operations. lie had proposed to tiie horse-shoers of Detroit to form au association for mutual improvement, and volunteered, if they would do so, that he would lecture to them weekly for a year, without cliarge, upon matters connected Avith horse flesh. But the association was not formed, lie had read in the Free Press, in a report of the farmers' Institute at Rockford, that Dr. Fraser advocated a flat, level shoe, without calks, lie quite agreed with him iu the principle and had urged it for the last thirty years, having fully ex- pressed himself in a work on the subject published many years ago. Dr. Jen- uing insisted that the bearing of the shoe should be perfectly level ; that a straight edge laid upon the inside should touch flatly all through. The natu- ral sliape of the horse's hoof and the way in which it rests upon the ground is a sufiicieut guide. He also condemned the useless trimming of the hoof and deprecated tlie cutting of the frog, an operation which was extremely injurious. A healthy hoof could not be foundered, no matter how the animal was treated. A healthy hoof "was not necessarily shapely, but it was elastic and sound, not hard and rigid. Robert McKay, Esq., of Bruce, gave au address on FARMING AS COMPARED AVITII OTHER OCCUPATIONS. Iu this paper a comparison was made between farming and other industries, greatly to the advantage of the former. Mr. McKay lauded the pursuit of farm- ing and gave high praise to farmers as the conservative element in the country. The honor and welfare of the nation to a large degree rested upon the farmers. Mr. McKay expressed himself very decidedly in favor of farms of not less than. 160 acres of laud. Occupations might change, indeed did change, and some trades of a hundred years ago had entirely disappeared, but the tilling of the soil would continue until the end. DISCUSSION. R. G. Baird could not agree with the necessity for such large farms, however desirable they might be. Nor did he think it best for all the "boys to settle around home." In fact he thought it better for all concerned that tliey should "scatter." It was better for their growth and prosperity, better for the old folks, too, always supposing the children to be the right kind of "boys;" that is, sound, sober, energetic, honest and intelligent. J. Webster Childs opposed the 160 acre idea. It would do well for the " boyj" to begin as best he might upon forty acres if he could get so much, but if not upon less. At the same time, as a business interest, it must be admitted that 160 acres were necessary to good success, and the larger the farm, with intelli- gent culture, the greater would be the returns. He did not think that farmers would become millionaires ; it was not desirable, perhaps. But there was no class of people who stood uj^on the independent ground of the farmer; no class who had fewer perplexities and conflicts with other business men. Mr. Adams, of Rochester, thought that professional men — the doctors and the ministers — were usually the narrow men. They were confined to "pathies" FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 127 and "ologies," tied up thereby and mentally distorted and ruined. [Laugh- ter.] The farmer was not cabined or confined by any such restricted views, but was able to see good in everytliing. In regard to the size of farms much depended upon the farm. His, for instance, was of 116 acres, and one acre of it was as productive as four acres of an ordinary farm. Indeed, one of his neighbors who had s:one to Kansas and returned said, "Your farm is worth a whole county in that country.' Mr. Norton, of Oakland County, gave it as his opinion that while it might be true of the past that a liberal education tended to divert from the farm, it was now apparent that farmers were beginning to seek a higher education for the sake of the benefits which it gave them as farmers. He believed that, however it might seem at the commencement of a man's career, as one passed the decline of life and tended down hill to the end, there was no occupation ■which gave better returns, or permitted of more enjoyments and comforts with less exertion and fretful ness, than farming. EVENING SESSION. The second evening session was occupied by Secretary K. G. Baird and Pres« dent T. C. Abbot. The former gave his lecture on "Farmer's Boys in Kela- tion to Farming," the latter his lecture on "Manual Labor in our Colleges." For both of these lectures see Lectures and Addresses given at more than one Institute. At the close of Pres. Abbot's address resolutions of thanks to the State Board of Agriculture, the representatives of the Agricultural College and oth- ers who had aided in making the Institute a success were adopted, and the In- stitute declared adjourned. BUCHANAN INSTITUTE was held January 27th and 28th, and was presided over by Mr. Thomas Mars, of Berrien Center. Wm. D. Davis, of Niles, and J. F. Higby, of Benton Harbor, vrere chosen Vice Presidents. J. H. Gillette, of Bertrand, was chosen Secre- tary. Music was furnished by the Hoe family quartette. President Mars made the following OPENING ADDKESS. In behalf of the friends of Bucanan and farmers of Berrien county I bid you ■welcome.'''*' Farmers and friends, we are pleased to see so many turn out to assist us in this, our first Institute in this county. May it prove a lasting ben- efit to farmers and a source of pleasure and profit to all in attendance. The object of these Institutes is to disseminate knowledge in science and practice, through lectures and discussions, on subjects relating to farming. 128 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTLllE. The coimnittce to whom wjis referred the matter of arranging a programme for tliis occasion have clone the best tiiey could within the limited time allotted them. Tlicy have endeavored to select fiom tlic most practical farmers at their command. Some of the best speakers and farmers being sick, or absent from home, it was with a great deal of persuasion that we secured the serv- ices of some placed on duty. I hope and believe that their efforts will be sat- isfactory to themselves, and a great benefit to us all. Fellow-citizens, you must not exiicct to hear from the farmers any great oratory or flowery essays, but a plain statement of facts as they have learned it from long and difficult experiment. If we had Avanted oratory we would have selected, as speakers, some of the professional mcU of other callings ; not that we are opposed to oratory, but have not that element in our ranks. You are well aware that in times past there has not been a proper concert of action "with the farmers of our country. But I think we see in the near future a bet- ter day dawning. "We look for the time to come, when from the farms and shops men will go forth able to fill our executive and legislative lialis with honor and ability; when intelligence will become so broad and general that it will be impossible for our judiciary to be corrupt, and when we shall cease to hear of venal legis- lators and corrupt public servants. K"ow farmers, in order to accomplish this result, we must be educated, for education is the corner-stone of all professions. We must work for and sus- tain our Agricultural College and our experimental farm at Lansing, We must secure men to represent us that will give that institution equal aid Avith others in the State, We want to send men there who will dare to say that they will make that College large enough to accommodate our daughters as well as our sons; men who will say that the farm shall be experimental if it don't bring a dollar of revenue. With the aid of these wise men from the College, and this Institute, we can gain knowledge that would take years to gain through our own experience. I believe that agriculture is the noblest calling of man, and in order to sustain it as such, wc must be educated in the broad- est sense. I trust the exercises will be pleasant and profitable to all in attendance. In conclusion, I hope that in discussion j'ou will be courteous but vigilant ; see that all subjects that may come before us have their proper ventilation. After the reading of papers or delivery of speeches, time will be given for a fair and free discussion of each subject. All are invited to participate in the discussions, and are urgently requested to do so. W^m. A. Brown read the following paper on SMALL FRUIT CULTURE FOR MARKET. Having been requested by your committee to prepare a paper to be read at your January meeting in Buchanan, the subject being " Small Fruit Culture for Market," I will endeavor to give a short history of this important industry in Berrien county — varieties, modes of culture, marketing, etc. The climatic advantages of the Michigan lake shore region began to be appreciated about the year 1857, and in the season of 1860 several large peach orchards were in bearing in the vicinity of St. Joseph. During the season of 1861 T. W. Dunham, J3. N. Brown, and several other pioneer fruit growers planted small quantities of Wilson's Albany strawberries for market purposes, this variety being favorably known at that time. The prices obtained in the Chicago market, during the first two or three years, proved remunerative, and. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 129 as Michigan strawberries began to be better appreciated in the Chicago market, both for city consumption ami for reshipment to many points tliroiighout the northwest, the area phmted to strawberries in Berrien county was rapidly extended, and, excepting an occasional glut in the middle of the season, the demand kept pace witli the supply until the seasons of 1874-5, when, in con- sequence of the "hard times," the laboring classes were unable to purchase so necessary and so cheap a luxury as the strawberry. In consequence of the loss of peacli trees by the yellows, a very large acreage has been planted in small fruits during the past few years; and as prices have often proved unrenuinerative, many thousands of bushels have gone to waste. Thorougli cultivators, however, who grow the best strawberries, and who send no poor fruit to market, seldom fail to obtain paying prices, but fields which have been cultivated one or two seasons, and then left to run wild whilst sev- eral crops have been gathered from the matted ground, are being plowed under and more thorough methods of cultivation are being adopted. The yield shows a wide range. Old fields on poor soil, with little or no cul- tivation, seldom yield more than 20 to 30 busliels per acre, while good cultiva- tion of young plants in matted rows, on the best soils, has given 300 busliels to the acre of fine fruit. The number of acres is less than formerly, bat the production of poor strawberries is in excess of the demands of the market. Many localities in Michigan and in other States have been partially supplied Avith strawberries from Berrien county; but as more of this fruit than is required for home supply is being grown in the vicinity of large towns tlirough- out the northwest, our market is being limited to Chicago. No locality which matures the strawberry with us can ever compete with Berrien county in grow- ing strawberries for the Chicago market. The adaptability of our soil, our climatic advantages, and the cheap and speedy transportation facilities afforded by competitive lines of steamers, and fruit train, by which we are able to place our berries — sparkling with the evening dews of Michigan — on the market, and upon the tables of consumers in Chicago in the early morning, will always confer preeminence upon this locality for the growing of small fruits for that market. Several towns in southern Illinois are extensively engaged in growing straw- berries for northern markets. As these markets are of great extent, and as the southern season is from two to three weeks earlier than ours, southern Illinois has the advantage of us in being able to supply the first cravings for this deli- cious fruit. We are reciprocating the favor, however, by shipping largely to southern points. Large quantities of strawberries grown in Berrien county find a market in St. Louis, and, during the last season, berries grown in Muskegon were successfully shipped to New Orleans. Varieties. Practical fruit growers in Berrien county have not made costly experiments with new varieties of small fruits. New varieties of strawberries have been dis- cussed and tested by amateurs and others, and when any variety has proved ■worthy of cultivation for market purposes it has been utilized. Wilson's Albany occupies nine-tenths of the ground planted in strawberries in Berrien county; and, until a berry is discovered wiiich shall embody tlie bearing and carrying characteristics of the Wilson, and which shall be better in quality, the Wilson will continue to be the market berry of the West. The Triomphe de Gand is a large, firm, glossy berry, and is generally conceded to be the best 17 130 STATE HOARD OF AniJIcri/rURE. strawberry grown, but it requires the best soil, and cjireful cultivation. Under equal circumstances it will produce about one-third as man}' berries per acre as the Wilson. The Jueunda succeeds well on moist rich soil, is a very large, fine looking berrv. but is less firm in its texture and not as good in (juality as the Trioini)he. Monarch of the West is being planted quite extensively; is very large, quite productive, of good quality, but many of the berries are "cox- comb-'in shape and must be picked while the "combs" arc green to bear transportation to distant markets. The Cresent Seedling proves very produc- tive, is of medium size and quality, ripens all of its fruit early, will not carry as well, and cannot take the place of the Wilson in the Chicago market. Seth Boyden is early; of very good quality, quite pj'olific, but not firm enough for our markets. Many other varieties have been tried; some of which have proved desirable for dessert and home markets, but have proved deficient iu some of the points requisite for distant markets. JMany varieties were shown at the meeting of the Michigan State Pomological Society at Muskegon, in June of last year, among which I would mention tiie following as being worthy of trial : Windsor Chief, introduced by Mr. Marvin, of Ovid, Mich. ; Shirtz, intro- duced by E. J. Shirtz, of Shelby, Oceana county, Mich.; Seneca Chief; Sterling"; Forest Eose ; Cowing's Seedling; and Champion, exhibited by T. T. Lyon, of South Haven. The Sharpless has not been fruited in western Michi- gan. Sufficient is known, however, of this last named berry to render doubt- ful the utilizing of it as a market berry in the West. Modes of Culture. As very excellent and elaborate articles have been given to the public recently upon this subject, I will not be minute in describing modes of culture. In the early days of small fruit culture in this county but little attention was given to modes of culture. The forest was cleared and burned, and small fruits planted in the yirgin soil and made a rapid and spontaneous growth, but as the domestic weeds were introduced, and plants became "massed," more thorough modes of culture became necessary. The expensive and laborious preparation of the soil, which is required on wet heavy soils, is not necessary on our sand loam table lands, and mulching, for winter protection, which may be a necessity in most locations east and west of us, is not practiced here, as our strawberry fields never winter kill. A light mulch of manure applied in the fall, or early winter, is always beneficial, but the application of large quan- tities of strong fertilizers induces a rank growth of foliage at the expense of the fruit. Planting is done in the spring. The "hill" or "narrow row" system of cultivation is usually practiced Avith the finer varieties, but the Wil- son, and varieties which reproduce rapidly from runners, are generally culti- vated by the "matted row" or over-all-the-ground system. The Jueunda and Triomphe may, with thorough cultivation, occupy the ground five or six years before renewal, but the best Wilsons are produced from plants of but one year's growth, and the most successful growers take but one crop of Wilsons. By this metliod the ground is rendered as clean as possible the previous season, and the plants placed at a distance of three and one-half feet "each way," which admits thorough cultivation in transverse directions with the "three point" shovel plow, until about the middle of August when all runners are allowed to take root, and the ground remains undisturbed until after the crop is gathered the next reason, when the field is plowed clean, while the plants for the ensuing crop are being cultivated on other fields. By this mode of culture FAK^IERS' INSTITUTES. 131 verv large crops of the finest Wilsons are grown, the i)lants do not become thickly massed, the fruit is large, the last berries are of fair size, and the cost of cultivation is less than by other thorough methods. In contrast with the one year method, I am sorry to be obliged to notice the ten-year system, or the gathering of berries from old, matted beds which have received no culti- vation during several years. This mode of no culture is not general ; but unfor- tunately temporary tenants have been induced to glean the old fields, and fill the market with "little, hard, sour things," thus casting obloquy on Michigan fruitgrowers "in general," and the Wilson's Albany berry "in particular." It is hoped, however, that with the advent of "better times," Chicago epicures will appreciate and pay for good fruit, and that modes of culture will be adopted whereby Berrien county will grow more and better strawberries from less than one-half of the acreage now occupied. BlacTcherries. In the spring of 1861 D. K. Brown planted a "trial patch" of Lawton blackberries on his fruit farm four miles south of St. Joseph. The result exceeded his expectations, and in 1864 he had several acres in bearing. Prices ruled very high in Chicago — from 'Zb to 40 cents per quart being readily obtained. Blackberry culture then extended rapidly, large crops were grown, and in 1868 a glut in the Chicago market occurred, large quantities going to waste. Mr. Brown utilized the crop by manufacturing forty barrels of wine. About three pounds of white sugar were added to the gallon of pure juice, making a wine which (with age) proved valuable for medicinal purposes, and sold readily in markets where introduced at $3 per gallon. Repeated loss of blackberry canes on the lower levels by "winter-kill" has discouraged the growing of the Lawton berry excepting upon high grounds contiguous to the lake. In the most favorable locations a total failure has never been known, while a half-crop in such locations, by hard winters, is attended with a total loss of the crop in most inland locations. The Kittatinny is quite extensively grown. It will survive a very little less degree of cold than the Lawton; is very little earlier, but is not so good in quality and does not continue so long in bearing. The Wilson blackberry has proved profitable with some growers. It is a half-running, half-hardy plant; produces very fine, large fruit, which matures early, and "at once." Winter protection is necessary in most loca- tions, but fermentation is sometimes induced, and the germ of the fruit destroyed, by excessive winter covering. Bending over and covering with earth the young canes of the Lawton is practiced while the plants are young and the canes small, but is impracticable w'hen the canes become older and stronger. The Snyder and Dorchester are hardy, but are inferior in quality to many of our wild varieties. The blackberry is indigenous to light, porous soils, and when well cultivated upon high grounds, which are contiguous to large bodies of water, or adjacent low lands, has proved a profitable fruit for market. The area of lands, however, even in our favored lake shore country, is very small upon which the best varieties can be grown with profit. In con- sequence of the frequent admonition of fruit dealers, to ''ship fruit green and hard," many of our finest fruits go upon the tables of city consumers in an undeveloped condition, and arc not properly appreciated. The AVilson straw- berry and Lawton blackberry "turn" several days before maturity, and when sent to market immediately after turning dark, tlie Lawton berry will turn red when exposed on the market. Knowing that the Lawton berry must become fully ripe before its delicious qualities can be appreciated, the most careful 133 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. " markotcr.? " uUow tlirco and four days to intevvciic l)ct\vccii pickings, and berries uhich may be too hard or too soft are excluded. liaspherries. The Doolittle Black and the Pinladelphia lied were extensively planted in the Lake Shore country, about the year 18G5, and several large crops being produced in succession, the market was over supplied and a decreased produc- tion ensued. Other varieties have been introduced, and the supply is usually fully adequate to the demand. Extreme warm damp weather at the time of marketing has a very depressing iniluence upon the condition of the market, as this fruit will mass and mould during such weather, before it can be con- sumed in distant markets. The Mammoth Cluster is now the favorite black variety. The Kirtland is a very early berry, bears transportation better than other varieties, and with tiie requisite thorough cultivation has proved quite remunerative. The Clark has been planted extensively, but will not produce sufticient to pay for cultivation, and has therefore been abandoned. The Her- stine is a fine large berry, but is only half-hardy, and is not extensively culti- vated. The Philadelphia has been the principal variety grown, but the fruit is poor and soft; the old plantations have died out from natural causes. The Turner has been planted extensively during the past two years. This is not as prolific as the Philadelphia, but is a very handsome, light-red berry, and will probably retain the first place as a market berry, until superseded by a new and better variety. Dried raspberries command good prices, and surplus products of this fruit are being utilized by different modes of evaporation. Conclusion. As a detailed and elaborate description of different modes of cultivation, pruning, insect enemies, etc., will occupy too much space for this paper, I will conclude this subject with a brief notice of the wild fruits of the county. In the year 1861 nearly all of the Lake Shore fruit region was occupied by dense forests. The light soils in the vicinity of the lake were interspersed with large acres of wintergreen vines, whortleberry bushes, and a few marshes con- tiguous to the lake produced excellent varieties of cranberries ; giant grape- vines hung pendant from the highest trees ; tangled masses of vines formed huge canopies over deep, dark ravines. Wild pigeons, pheasants, and turkeys partook of the wild fruits — unmolested and unforbidden. No wild blackber- ries were found in the unbroken forests ; and no raspberry canes were found by the early settlers. With the advent of the fruit grower, and the cultivation of these fruits, the seeds were disseminated by birds, and wherever the wood- man's axe, or fire, let in the light of the sun, wild berries came into existence. The extensive range of steep, cone-like hills, which border the lake south from the Grand Mar several miles, were overrun by the great fire of 1871, and almost denuded of the dense under-growth and heavy timber, thus preparing the soil for the wild berries which soon covered the hills. Many of the wild berries are seedlings from cultivated varieties, and a few wild plants have been selected which may prove of value to small fruit cultivators. During prolific seasons hundreds of people find remunerative employment in gathering wild fruits and shipping them to Chicago market. The best cranberry marshes have been purchased by intelligent cultivators, and the crops are being largely augmented by cultivation and propagation. The wintergreen berry is imper- vious to summer's heat or winter's cold, and many hundreds of cases are gath- ered during the winter and spring months, and sent to the Chicago market. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 133 Not having the necessary data at hand, I cannot give statistics showing acreage in small fruits, aggregate amounts shipped, etc., but while a large part of our county is second to no otlier in the production of general farm products, with the advantages heretofore alluded to it must always remain the banner small fruit county of the northwest. The subject of marketing fruit, fruit packages, etc., is one of great impor- tance to Michigan fruit growers, and should supplement this paper; but as I have occupied so much of your time I will defer this subject until a future occasion. I would ask the indulgence of brother fruit growers in other locali- ties, who, by reason of a different soil, and climate, may differ from me regarding modes of culture, varieties, etc., as I have consulted no one, and have given only my observations and experience in "Small fruit culture for market in Berrien county." DISCUSSION. Prof. Cook says he has heard the Gregg Kaspberry very highly recommended in Ohio. Mr. Omer, a grower, said it was the most hardy berry, and was also the best variety they could find. Mr. Brown. — We have heard of that berry in Berrien county, but we do not know that it has been tried. Mr. Koe. — Would like to know what experience the speaker had had with the Snyder Blackberry? Mr. Brown said the Snyder had been tried on their light soil and had been discarded as a poor berry. It was hardy and prolific. Mr. Gillett asked why he thought climate affected the raising of fruits? Mr. Brown said there were obvious reasons. One reason was that small fruit would not stand a very great degree of cold ; on the lake shore the cold is not extreme. Again, they did not suffer extremes of cold, repeated thawing and freezing. Mr. Gillett. — Do you think the same culture is needed on clay as on light soils ? Mr. Brown. — In a great degree, yes. There must be thorough cultivation in all cases. Mr. Morgan wanted to know the mode of cultivating the Blackberry for the first two or three years. Mr. Brown. — We plant about four feet apart each way and in rows ; cultivate as for corn. In the second and third year we follow out the same method, cutting back the old plants in the winter and cultivating the new canes in the summer. We do not allow too many canes to grow. A thrifty growth of canes is apt to affect the quality of the fruits, Mr. Ilelmic wanted to know about the soil on Avhich the Ohio Blackberry, the Gregg, nourishes so well. Prof. Cook said the soil was heavy clay, thoroughly underdrained. Mr. James Cassidy, the College Gardener, read the following paper on PROGRESSIVE HORTICULTURE. Horticulture is a practical art, and is generally regarded as coeval with tlie human race ; for we read in Holy Writ that God made a garden and placed man in it to care for it, but a breach of the primal law caused his expulsion therefrom, and condemned him to eat bread by the sweat of his brow. That a 134 STATE BOAKl) OF AGRICULTURE. system of liorticulturc was ]-)vacticcfl thousaiuls of years a^^o by the Egyptians is evidetit iiom the })aintiiic,'s on their ruined temples, and also from tiie fact that it \va< necessary, in order to sust:ain the densely peo[)led valley of the Nile. From this wondrous land of fruits and flowers, the art was carried into Greece, and there received the greatest attention. From Greece, or Asia Minor, it was carried to Eome, where it was the chief reliance of the people. Of the Koman jrardens we have full accounts; the branches of horticulture then known to them seem to have been carried to a high degree of perfection. The gardens of the ancient Asiatics, however, in no way resembled those of the present day, the chief object in all Oriental enclosures being to produce such vegetables, whether decorative or edible, as were necessary for either public or private purposes, their idea of a pleasure garden being a grove of trees for the purpose of shade; and probably this idea of planting for shade first suggested planta- tions of trees. The ancient patriarchs subsisted chiefly by their flocks, and the 6im})le fruits and vegetables that flourished at that time, and as population increased in numbers they colonized for their better protection against those more powerful than themselves, at the same time directing their attention to the cultivation of the soil and the practice of the mechanic arts. But for cen- turies after this, so common was the practice of war and depredation that people dared not live in other than fortified places cultivating an enclosed patch of ground to serve their most pressing wants. It would seem as though the various fruits of the earth would entice the attention of those people to their improvement; but so dominant seemed the bent of humanity on the acquisition of power and its direct promotion as to exclude all else save the arts of architecture, sculpture, and painting, the pursuit of the latter being due, perhaps, to the peo))le living in cities. During the dark ages horticulture, like other peaceful pursuits, languished, and it remained for the Saracens to revive and carry it into France, Spain, and Sicily, and in later times every mon- astery had its well-kept garden. From Spain the science spread all over Europe, England being among the latest to receive it. Many of the ancients wrote treatises on gardening, but through lack of scientific knowledge, and the prev- alence of popular superstition, error, and prejudice abounded in all their writ- ings, and I am sorry to say that many of those souvenirs of a gone past prevail to-day. But with the spread of civilization the mind expanded, experiments were instituted, and inquiry began in relation to the principles of vegetable life, and improved husbandry. Accident, also, contributed not a little to help produce the splendid achievements of the present day. Horticulture is now a science which has, and is now receiving the closest attention from many of the able scientific men of our time; and as we look at the vast field of nature we are struck with awe and admiration, and things as common as the air we breathe, when examined by the light of science unfold such pleasing features as to make us wonder at our previous lack of appreciation. Horticulture belongs to civilized life; when the home becomes a permanent abode, it is then that the necessity of sustenance demands the cultivution of the soil, con- sequently it has always received the greatest attention from overcrowded nations. Thus it is with China, France, Belgium, England, and many others, and in time it must become so with us, as under our laws and form of govern- ment we shall increase so in population as to be as overcrowded as any nation on earth. All over Europe to-day, governments and individuals are looking to horticulture to supply the necessaries of life, rendered more immediately imperative by a variety of causes in diflerent countries. Mr. Gladstone, in a recent address on horticulture among farmers, said that FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 135 England imported $15,000,000 of vegetables per annum, all of which might bo saved to the country by better land laws and by stimulating the soil to increased production. Horticulture, like agriculture, was practiced for ages before any attempt was made to systematize its methods and their results; but it is now conceded that the cultivation of the soil has its general principles as well as its general details ; that there must be books in which facts are stated, and rules systematically laid down for the highest development of the art. It is scarcely necessary, then, to say that a new era now exists in the cultivation of gardens as well as fields, and as the subject is one of the highest interest, the necessity for advanced and regular efforts for its success is daily becoming better under- stood. Within the memory of many now living there was not an agricultural paper published in this country, the first effort in this direction being the American Farmer, published in 1820. Now there are many monthly and other periodicals devoted to horticulture whose writings are well up with the times. Nor is this all; thousands of secular and religious papers have special columns on this subject, without which their success would indeed be doubtful. With this brief notice of the early rise and progress of horticulture, I will now somewhat hastily view its present condition and future prospects under three heads : the economic, tlie ornamental, and the scientific. Economic horticulture comprises fruit growing, vegetable gardening, and tree growing for shelter, ornamentation or other economic purposes in the various industries of the world. Fruit growing is a branch of horticulture very attractive to the great body of the people, and as a rule the most profitable, particularly when associated to some extent with vegetable gardening near large cities and towns. Fruit culture and vegetable gardening border closely on agriculture, and require the best skill of the cultivator, as they comprise the whole question of com- mercial and other fertilizers which are so intimately associated with their suc- cessful prosecution. They also require special attention to soil and climate, as well as demanding foresight and a very thorough preparation of the soil for the best success; but where this has been omitted frequent cultivation will give excellent results, and for many plants is almost a sutficient substitute. Forestry, in its relation to agricultural economy, in so far as it helps us in reaching the best system of tillage, is of special consequence to agriculture itself, and until this, and the subject of drainage, also the importance of ento- mology, is fully recognized by farmers and horticulturists, the best possible results cannot be reached by them. The planting of trees, both for profit and ornament, has long engaged the active attention of European nations. The present forests of England are said to have been planted by the hand of man. The highlands of Scotland have also been replanted by the untiring labors of past generations, rendered necessary by the I'ccklessness of the people at one time in destroying the timber. Planting trees is now recognized as an impor- tant aid to the future prosperity of any country; climate, scenery and the comforts of life depending in no small degree upon the performance of this duty. As planting trees for ornament comes late in tlie progress of horticul- ture and does not promise immediate results, it has not received that attention in tliis country given it by governments aud individuals in Europe; yet its importance is daily becomnig more apparent as we deplore the vicissitudes of climate caused by the destruction of our forests, till danger now exists that like l^alestine our country will be shorn of its future abundance. One of the most hopeful evidences of progress in the present day is the rapid extension of orchards and useful trees all over the country, and tlie de- sire for improved varieties of the various products of the garden. Some peo« 13G STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE. plo uro slill fearful tliat fruit-growiii_:j; will be ovenlone; lifty years ago the same result was predicted, but the anticiimted result has not yet come, nor do we believe that it ever will, for various reasons. Among which we notice, that the increased taste for gardening, which is such a marked feature of our time and nationality, augments the demand for lirst class fruits and vegetables, and with this increased consumption, producers of a first class article need have no fear of an over supply. The natural productions of the earth are simple, and it is doubtful whether many of the grains, roots, herbs and fruits when first discovered were palatable food for man in a state of civilization, certainly in their native wild state, they hardly resemble their present appearance or value. The peach was originally an almond, but now changed by the skill of man into sweet and melting llesh. The pear has been cultivated for two thou- sand years, but it is within tlie past seventy years that its fruit has been brought to its present high state of excellence. Dwarfing the pear by graft- ing it on the quince is also an art cf modern growth. The plum, cherry and apple were as we still know them in their native wilds. The wild pea and beau, the potato, and cabbage, with a leaf hardly larger than that of the ordi- nary clover ; and in fact all our esteemed fruits and vegetables had but little to recommend them, but gradually and surely have their natures been melio- rated by breeding and cultivation, and made subservient to the wants of man. The earliest efforts for improvement in horticulture in America were made by nurserymen and fruit growers, meeting in convention and founding societies for the advancement of pomology, and it seems to me that the future progress of horticulture must depend largely upon the work of these societies, and that of the professonal horticulturist. Here the latter can give to the public the result of his experience and observation, and find cause for his failures in the success of his neighbors and learn wisdom from those who by experience and observation have learned the secrets of nature. And while we notice with pardonable pride the progress made each year, yet are we fully conscious of how much we have yet to learn of her hidden treasures? We know that plants absorb and utilize more or less of certain elements as they are differently constituted, and yet the coloring of their leaves and flowers is still a profound secret to us. Our greatest progress has been in pomology, as the works of Downing, Warder, Wilder, and the rec- ords of the American Pomological Society, amply testify that in this particular department of horticulture we stand unrivalled. Still at the west and north- west, horticulture in its broadest sense is still in its infancy; its most impor- tant triumphs have been scored in the vineyard. Only a few years ago it was thought that the Isabella and Catawba were the only grapes adapted to the northwestern states; now we have many others. Certain varieties of the American grape belonging to the species riparia and mstivalis are now the cliief reliance of French vineyardists on account of their ability to resist the phylloxera. The American potato is also extensively culti- vated in Europe for a variety of purposes, particularly by the Germans, who are its most successful cultivators. The shrewd Germans are evidently not troubled much with the mania for new varieties ; they exercise their good common sense in confining their attention to such kinds as they have proved worthy of culti- vation. The consequence is that they now control the English market, and teach us this important lesson • to avoid the extensive planting of new varieties until their adaptability to our soil and climate is fully proven. We say, then, that fruits a)id vegetables should be cultivated by every fam- ily, as well for their hygienic tendencies as for their aid in satisfying our uat- FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 137 ural desire for them, without clandestinely enjoying them at the expense of our neighbors. Ornamental horticulture includes floriculture, ornamental planting, and landscape gardening, and as it appeals to tlie ajsthetic part of our nature must necessarily make slow progress in a new country, wliere the immediate Avants of life are first to be considered. In flowers our poets have found their most beautiful illustrations, and most true and fanciful sentiments. The garden has been to them a book of ins])iration. Flower gardens are asso- ciated in cur minds with ail countries, and all periods of time. The most dis- tinguished men, who have agreed in nothing else, have agreed in all ages to delight in gardens. The cultivation of flowers in most instances is easy of acquirement. Nearly all plants may be propagated from layers, or cuttings; others multiply by suckers, and tlie rest from seed. The primitive rules applicable to vegetable gardening hold good in the culti- vation of ordinary flowers, as any soil adapted to the iiroduction of the former is equally so to the growth of the latter. Perhaps no country in the world is richer in her natural flora than that of North America; particularly in flower ing shrubs and herbaceous plants. In elegance of shape, and brilliance of color, many of them will bear a fine contrast with the exotics of other coun- tries. A leading fault in many flower gardens of the present day is the lack of a proper selection of kinds, and a bad method of arranging them. The most satisfactory gardens are those where but few kinds are grown, and these should afford a continuous display of color and perfume, and have a neat and agreeable habit of growth. The old method of mixing plants of conflicting habits of growth should be discarded for the modern style of grouping and massing the colors in separate figures. No disposition of plants can be made that will be more effective than this. The art of arranging flowers is a very interesting study, and such as have a correct taste will no doubt succeed the best. A Belgium journal has given us some interesting figures, showing the rapid increase in our knowledge of the vegetable kingdom. In the bible one hundred plants are alluded to. LiunjBus in his day described over seven thou- sand. In the beginning of the present century Persoon described 25,000. In 18G.3 Bentley estimated the known species at 135,000, and doubtless many more await tlie eye of human inspection, and possibly exceeding in beauty or fragrance any yet introduced. Almost every living animal and vegetable product is utilized as food in some part of the world. In China over four hun- dred species of plants are considered edible, and in the whole world the edible species exceed four thousand. All hunnvn beings appreciate beauty in some way or other. The taste for sleek cattle is often shown where the house is poorer than the barn. Still it is not claimed that all have equal capacity or desire for house adornment; in fact there are many horticulturists who see more to admire in a cabbage patch, than in the most beautiful lawn or flower bed ; their plane of beauty in any product of the soil being what it is quoted at in prices current. But these prejudices are being rapidly overcome by the convincing evidence of successful results. People begin to see that the value of a farm depends not so much on the number of its acres, as upon its mode of culture, productiveness, and such surroundings as add to its comfort and respectability. The objection is often urged that ornamentation is a bill of expense that but few people can afford. To this I answer that much beauty may be given a place, with but little expenditure of money; indeed more than enough is often spent injudiciously, just for lack of a little knowledge. Every •tree grown for ornament adds far more than its cost to the value and comfort 138 STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE. of the farm. The home snrromulings that arc bleak and unadorned will either not sell, or must go at the lowest figures, consequently instead of not affording to ornament his home with things that are agreeable to good taste, the progressive farmer cannot afford to leave it undone, if he would escape loss. All this offers a strong argument for home adorn fuent, both by reason of the great public interests at stake, as well as by the evidence we have that but little ]irogrcss can be made until we can secure the intelligent cooperation of our farming communities. If we are backward in any branch of horticul- ture, it is that of landscape gardening, which should never be divorced from any system of education intended for civilized society. It is true that nature has given us many scenes of great beauty, and this has to some extent relieved us of the necessity of creating them by art, but it is equally true that we lack purpose and design in our efforts in this direction, which at once impresses the im})ortance of the diffusion of that knowledge, that shall lead to better results. The garden is at once a source of profit, substantial comfort, and higli intel- lectual enjoyment, because it contributes so largely to the wants, enjoyments, and luxuries of life; that view it as we may, its practice affords such grand objects for contemplation, that whether we look at it as a means of supplying our wants, or gratifying the senses, or improving the mind, it must ever be a subject worthy our earnest attention and consideration.. Scientific horticulture has for its primary object truth and an increased knowledge of the science. It comprises collections of fruits, flowers and plants generally, not so much for profit or ornamentation as for experiment and the fostering of scientific taste. Comparatively little is known by people in general as to what extent plants may be improved by a systematic and intel- ligent course of breeding. Individual effort is commendable, but few people have the time or money to carry it out for a sufiticient length of time in order to reach satisfactory results. A kind providence has endowed plants and ani- mals with a capacity for improvement, and to man he has given intelligence for their development. Nearly all the natural productions of the earth are capable of improvement by judicious selection and cultivation. It is true that uature has been lavish with her favors; she has given us grains and vegetables that are sustaining and agreeable; flowers and fruits that are attractive to the eye and to the palate. These are but the beginnings from which a progressive horticulture has sprung. We may be said to have commenced a new era in horticulture with the knowledge of hybridization in the production of new and improved varieties of plants, an era that exemplifies a most beautiful law of nature by which improvement in its vegetable products may be carried to a high degree of perfection. AVho would recognize in tlie Baldwin apple the worthless crab, or in the delicious pear tlie austere wildlingof our hedge-rows? Who has not pitied the ancient Bretons who subsisted upon the miserable cole- worts from which the modern turnip, cabbage and cauliflower have sprung by cultivation and selection? Wiio can estimate at their true value the observa- tions and experiments of Darwin or tlie elaborate work of Lawes and Gilbert in agricultural chemistry? To hybridization, selection, progressive evolution and the practical application of this knowledge to the purposes of tlie cultivator is husbandry and horticulture indebted for the improvement in those plants and animals witli which they have to deal. Much has already been dune in this direction, and we have the most cheering assurance that every section of the country will have fruits ada[ited to its particular locality. The adaptation of plants to diversity of climate, and tlieir distribution over the earth, — why some are able to adapt themselves to almost any change of location, and oth- FAKMEKS' INSTITUTES. 139 ers are confined to certain well defined limits, is a question so profound that few have any definite knowledge of it. Mankind will often endure the most violent changes of climate, but the changes that plants will endure is fixed by a never changing law, — not but that plants will sometimes endure extremes of heat and cold foreign to them in their native home, — still we must not suppose that time will accomplish a constitutional change in them. It is enough for us to know that we can obtain fruits from seed adapted to tlie region we inhabit. But the non-adaptation of fruits to our several localities is not the only difficulty we have to contend with. The alarming increase of noxious insects inflicts a loss upon the country, according to Prof. Riley, of not less than three hundred millions of dollars annually, a greater loss than Napoleon, when in the zenith of his fame, ever inflicted upon an enemy. There are three classes of diseases common among plants: first, those due to insects; second, those due to vegetable parasites, the most common of which are the fungus growths; third, a class of diseases due to a variety of causes, and which may be called real diseases. The numerous species which derive their sustenance from the vegetable kingdom have long been the most dreaded by the tiller of the soil. Although dealing in small things, yet entomology is a vast science, for Prof. Riley computes the number of insects as exceeding by ten fold that of all other animals combined. Of late years human skill has done much to help mitigate those evils that escape our notice by their minute- ness, elude our grasp by their agility, and defy our skill by their countless numbers. Every cultivator of the soil should be familiar not only with the botany of the useful plants, but of the weeds also, that he may the more easily exterminate them. The cultivation of plants and flowers, to understand how they are nourished and supported, and the soils best adapted to their natures; to understand their several parts and their relationsiiip to each other; how they may be perpetuated and hybridized. This is practical botany. AVe look upon horticulture as botany applied in practice ; and just as the horti- culturist departs from its teachings, so does he impair his own success. Tiie horticulturist is indebted to the botanist for the analysis and determination of newly discovered plants, for advice in relation to grafting, and hybridizing, and to the physiologist for points in relation to pruning, forcing, and many other things. On the other hand, who has such opportunities as the horti- culturist for studying the habits of plants, their value for food, ornament, or other economic purposes, or in supplying facts for the physiologist in relation to hybridization? The practical horticulturist miglit confer a benefit on science that is hardly estimable by a careful record of important facts, his every-day work being largely a matter of personal experience and observation; and this is, to some extent, a measurable quantity in every lifetime. It is clear, then, that the closest union is desirable to both parties in order to render the best service to a progressive horticulture. We do not say that science alone will teach us horticulture, since it is an art of practical experiments and actual experiences, not to be learned in the classroom only ; but I tell you what it can do, it will enable those who have given it some attention to over- come difficulties that may puzzle the man who has not this advantage. But aside from its utility in the pr.ictice of horticulture, we do desire to see every tiller of the soil give some attention to botany, an acquaintance with which cannot fail in promoting his best interests. A knowledge of the soil and its combinations and capabilities lies at the base of all true culture, and is a great aid to its successful practice. Since the application of chemistry to agriculture many important facts have been deter- 140 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. mined ; errors corrected, and correct principles laid down of great value to the husbandman. The science of Meteorology is so intimately associated with that of horticulture that a better knowledge of it than we now possess is very desirable. The study of carefully kept records as to the action of the elements, also the inlluences of large bodies of water, and the effects of high elevations, and deep valleys, upon the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere, will no doubt in time reveal the causes that influence weather, and perhaps throw some light upon changes in public health, with which weather no doubt has something to do. The question as to whether the drought induced by severe freezing is not more fatal to jdants than the mere lowering of temperature, is wortliy of more attention than it has yet received. The vagaries of the past severe winter among the iloral treasures on the Continent of Europe tell a tale, and point a moral, in this direction, which we think will not be lost sight of by European horticulturists in the future. We already know that many tender plants may be saved from injury during severe weather, by merely soak- ing the ground around them with water, and then mulching with leaves or other available material, thereby arresting the escape of heat and moisture from the soil, and this acting as a protection against drought rather than cold. The average temperature of a country avails us little in determining the special conditions which affect the welfare of plants. To understand these conditions it is wise to place less reliance on averages and more upon specific facts. There are many plants which will endure the most rigorous winters of France, that utterly fail in the more moderate climate of England. By such examples are be warned not to trust too confidingly to averages for our estimates of climate in relation to the growth of plants. Agriculture and horticulture combined, have often been the means of great national prosperity to many countries, as for instance the cultivation of the tea plant; in early times it was taken as a cnriosit)', and sometimes as a liquor, and its culture was exclusively monopol- ized by the Chinese ; but now by the combined efforts of agriculture and hor- ticulture it has become a staple industry of India. Another plant, the Cin- chona or Quinine tree, an article of prime importance to humanity everywhere, is largely cultivated in India. 1 might also mention the Eucalyptus, the rub- ber trees, and many others, as having a somewhat similar history. It was said of all those plants that they could not be established as an industry in any other country, and probably would not have been but for the efforts of the horticulturist supplemented by the larger labors of the agriculturist ; and I doubt not but that tlie future history of American agriculture will record the permanent success of some such industry, in a portion at least of her vast territory. The Corinthian capital also owes its existence to the vegetable kingdom, because it was from a plant drooping over some neglected stone that first sug- gested to the Grecian architect the idea of that most graceful of all architect- ural orders. The thought now suggests itself, how a knowledge of horticult- ure may be made more general and useful than it is at present and I shall indicate three methods by which I think this may be in part acomplished : First, by instruction in horticultural science in our schools. Although the importance of agricultural pursuits is admitted, it is safe to say that there is not a school or college, outside the agricultural colleges, where a moment is devoted to an exi^lanation of those familiar operations of the farm and garden to which we are indebted for our daily bread. May we not hope, then, that the time will soon come when the school garden shall become an educational force in our country, when instruction in horticulture shall be imparted to the FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 141 young in our schools who are especially likely to be influenced by its teachings ; so that education by labor as well as by study shall become a pleasure and not a task. Second, to our horticultural societies and to tlic professional horti- culturist do we look to spread and enforce a broader knowledge and apprecia- tion of the art among the people, both by precept and example, so tliat their influence may stimulate the enlightened tsiste and public spirit of communities into a spirit of inquiry and improvement. Agricultural societies have done much in this direction, but once a year is not often enough for farmers to come together and compare notes. The tiller of the soil needs to study and improve his methods the year through, and no better plan now suggests itself than the organizing and sustaining clubs for discussion and mutual improve- ment. Nor do we consider it advisable to confine the membership of such clubs to tillers of the soil exclusively, because it will often be found that many business men and mechanics are much interested in agricultural matters, and often have gardens in which the choicest fruits and flowers are cultivated with care and intelligence ; certainly no class are more desirous of uniting with farmers and horticulturists in this matter than the intelligent business man of the country. Interchange of thought and opinion between people engaged in different pursuits is mutual commerce and a great mutual benefit. We are glad to notice the increase in numbers and influence of these clubs ; they can- not fail in promoting the best interests of communities wherever they exist. Third, upon the press rests the well being of a people ; upon journals devoted to the technology of particular arts rests the progress of that art, because the intelligence of communities is formed and fixed by what they read. We need, then, in this direction, not only more newspapers, books, and essays, but more concentrated teaching, more good examples to imitate. Looking at horticulture in its broadest sense we see that it must in some way reach nearly every home. Differ in other matters as Ave may, we here meet on the broad and comprehensive platform of universal sympathy and common manhood. As an educating power it tends to give stability to its followers, binding families to their homes, providing shade and shelter, both from the heats of a summer sun, as well as the chilling blast of winter's storm, while at the same time it surrounds us with beautiful lawns and trees, and beautifies our windows with plants that cheer us with their blossoms in winter. They are living things, hence it is that we love them, for the advantages secured by permanent occupation cannot be measured. It is enough for us to know that the highest form of civilization can only be reached by such a people. Horti- cultural pursuits quicken thought and observation as its domain covers the whole field of natural science. Not science as taught in the class-room only, but to nature herself and its practical application to the wants of man. It is not enough that we understand the theory of hybridization or the classification of plants, but its practical application to the process of horticulture, tlie laws of nature deriving most their importance from a practical application of their principles. The mysteries of the microscope have a powerful hold on the im- agination of the scientist, but to the farmer or gardener whose hopes may be blasted in an hour by the presence of some vegetable parasite, they assume a practical importance of the greatest moment. Questions of the most vital im- portance arc constantly arising which shall be answered either by your own experience or that of other?, the result cannot fail of being profitable to your powers of study and observation, and a practical mental culture will be acquired in a large degree measured by the will of the man. The work of the horticul- turist also favors a denser population than that of ordinary farming, as it 143 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. brinies residences closer togotlier, and cotisequently larii^er privileges accrue to inUividnals and coinuuinities ; he also exerts a great inlluence on liiinself and others in that he labors in the most efficient manner in supplying the physical Avants of man's nature; but there is a much higher and wider work in laboring for tlie higher wants of his nature. The great truth that man shall not live by bread alone, has been accepted in its broadest sense. There can be no question but that Jiorticulture in America has a great future before it which we can materially strengthen by developing those features which our climate and people seem to favor rather than by following European methods too closely, thereby establishing a school of horticulture of our own. One of the best pieces of advice Sir AY alter Scott ever gave was to plant a tree : lie said when you have time plant a tree, it will be growing when you are sleeping. Plant trees and flowers then about your homes; plant orchards, plant forests, lay out your grounds with a view to the future, for around them shall cluster the purest, most refined and rational enjoyments of life, and do not be deterred by the selfish fear that you may not participate in the harvest. Prof. Cook gave an unwritten lecture on the "Hessian Fly," much in the same line of thought as his lecture published in the Keport of 1877. Mr. Levi Sparks, of Berrien, read the following paper on CORN CULTURE. The subject assigned to me by the committee for discussion is of such a char- acter and so commonplace and universally understood — or supposed to be — by all present that I fear I shall be unable to give you any new thoughts or pre- sent the matter in a way that will greatly interest or enligliten. The subject of "Corn Culture" is almost without exception supposed to be one of the easiest lessons to be learned by the farmer. Because the character, structure and habits of the corn plant are such that it will grow and even thrive to a certain extent under almost any circumstances, and in almost any kind of soil, every mere novice at farming is ready to conclude that he understands all that there is to be learned about corn culture, and, like Horace Greeley, is ready to tell you what he knows about farming in general and the cultivation of corn in particular. Most of our Michigan farmers, from the consideration that wheat is the great staple of our State, or at least is the commodity that can the most readily be converted into cash, have devoted all their energies towards increasing the number of acres of wheat on their farms respectively, and have apparently lost sight of the fact that in the number of bushels produced in the United States, as well as the important and varied uses into which it is converted. Corn constitutes by far the more important production of the two. Hence the importance of its production or cultivation being better understood. From a hasty examination of the statistics 1 learn that for the year 1877 the number of bushels of wheat produced in Berrien county was 530,122, and for the same year there were 28,523 acres of corn raised in the county. Esti- mating the same at 30 bushels per acre would give us a grand total of 855, GOO bushels of corn, an amount almost twice as great as the wheat crop of our county, and apjiroximating the same in value. The most discouraging feature exhibited by the statistics is the fact that with all our improvements in farming and farm implements our average per acre is steadily decreasing, and doubtless the same is true of other counties. In 1873 our average yield of corn per acre was 29 85-100 bushels; in 18G3 it was 30 FARMEKS' IXSTITUTES. 143 51-100 bushels, and in 1853 it was 33 14-100 bushels, being a loss of almost four bushels per acre. I have been unable to ascertain our average yield later than 1873. You will please to remember these figures, as I shall have occasion to use them again before I close. It will be my purpose to discuss the subject assigned to me so as to demon- strate to you, farmers of Berrien count}', iiow we can restore our rank, not only to the 7th (where we stood twenty years ago), bnt to show you how we can stand at the very head of the list of counties. For with our favored location and climate and a soil proverbial for fertility wherever the St. Joseph valley is known, we sliould be content with no inferior rank. I believe that the average per acre for the entire State is too low ; that it is entirely and disgracefully low ; that there arc but two reasons why it is so low, viz. : ignorance of the nature and habits of the corn plant and alack of proper cultivation. It is true that we have not in Michigan the rich bottom lauds of the Sciota or Miami, or the climate of southern Ohio or Indiana, but notwith- standing tliis I affirm that with proper culture the average Michigan acre can be made to produce very nearly if not fully double the present average rate. No farmer who raises corn on any of our Michigan soil that is at all adapted to its cultivation should be content with a less yield than fifty bushels per acre. And if he is the fortunate owner of one of our fertile Berrien county farms he should not be satisfied with less than sixty, sixty-five, or even seventy bushels ])er acre; and a few of our best farms are capable of producing seventy-five or eighty bushels, with proper cultivation. The conditions essen- tial for producing a good crop of corn are so various and differing so widely in character, and yet all of them so important in their respective uses, that it is important that they should all be considered. But in the limited time allowed me it will not be possible for me to do anything further than merely allude to a few of them. First, let me say that the soil should be of the right character, possessing in a high degree the material upon whicli corn is nourished. Again, the season must be suitable, with suflicient but not too much moisture or rainfall. The plowing must be done at the right time and with the right kind of a plow. The seed must be well selected. Planting must be at the right time and in proper manner, and the subsequent cultivation at regular intervals, with im- plements suitable for the purpose. You will readily see that I can only refer specifically to but a few of the points named. Hence in order to discuss the subject methodically I will first consider the preparation of the soil or seed-bed. Next, the time and manner of planting, and in tlie last plan the proper mode of cultivation. I ask you to remember that I am to treat of the subject in a general way, of farms as they average and the seasons as they occur, and you must not expect that what may follow will be applicable to every individual or farm. In our latitude the farming season being short and work always pressing, we almost invariably begin plowing for corn too early. There are a few crops that will grow and flourish on land that is cloddy or sodden. Not so with corn; to succeed it must have a loose, mellow or porous soil and sub-soil, so that the tender fibrous roots can permeate the entire surface and feed upon the dainties that nature is continually compounding only in a soil of this character. Such a condition of soil is impossible if the plow share is driven through it before the accumulation of water induced by the winter snows and spring rains has had ample time to disappear. I repeat it because it is fundamental and of the first importance. A good thrifty growth of corn you cannot secure on 144 STATE IJOAIID OF AGRICULTURE. a hard cloddy iield. A warm, rich, mellow soil you must have to get a good growth of corn. This you cannot have if you plow too early. I know the temptation is great to begin plowing early, and very thrifty farmers dislike to be last in planting. Better by far is it to be a week or ten days behind your neighbor with your i)lowing if by this means you can come out ahead of him in the fall iifteen or twenty bushels per acre. Of course the rule suggested is not so important on our light sandy or loamy soils, but on heavy soils composed largely of clay it is imperative. As to the precise time that plowing for corn should begin, no definite rule can be given. The location and nature of the soil together with the season must determine. Many a farmer while cultivating his corn finds it growing slowly and feebly. Tiie stalks are slender and the blades yellow and sickly, and he all uncon- scious of the cause concludes that the season is not right or some Avorm or insect is preying upon it. Or perhaps it was not planted at the right time of the moon. When the whole secret and difficulty is he was so mucli afraid of being behind his neighbor that he began to plow when his land was not in con- dition for the work. He turned over the surface soil and left it cold and wet and cloddy. The rays of the life-giving sun, and the warm breath of spring, and all the chemical agencies compounded in the laboratory of nature, could not permeate it and fill it with the elements of plant life. Ilence the young greedy corn, which is the grossest feeder that we produce on the farm, that must have food or die, finding but little to subsist upon begins to fade and droop. As to the time and manner of planting I will be brief as possible. Some of the arguments used relative to plowing are equally applicable to plant- ing, and need not be repeated. The great danger of planting (premising that the seed has been well selected) is planting too early, especially on our heavy soils. I feel reluctant to take this position, as late planting is thought to betoken a lazy or unthrifty farmer; but the truth compels me to do so, for by this means only can we increase our yield of corn to the point I have indicated. You will please to bear in mind that while I do not recommend too early planting, I am no advocate of too late or very late planting. But of the two, late plant- ing is preferable. Let me tell you why I take this position. The laws •which govern animal and vegetable life are in many respects similar, and in the growth and development from infancy to maturity there is a striking resemblance between the animal and the vegetable. Now every stock raiser knows perfectly well that in order to secure a large, healthy, and well- developed animal, it must be brought into existence with a strong, vigorous constitution, and that afterward such food or nourishment must be supplied in abundance as will conduce to its rapid and continuous growth ; and most im- portant of all, it must not be allowed to stop growing or, in common parlance, to become "stunted." If it should, all your efforts to restore it to its former growing condition will be futile. Do your best afterward, and you will produce a nine-hundred instead of a sixteen-hundred ox, or a two-hundred in place of a four-hundred pound pig. The corn plant, although a vegetable, lives and grows upon nourishment — upon what it eats, if you please. All the difference between it and the animal is that in one case the food is sup])lied in a tangible form by the careful keeper, while in the other the elements and inorganic forces which support vegetable life are supplied lavishly by the careful hand of nature, but are hidden away in the soil for iise when needed, imperceptible and but little understood by the masses, but just as real as the food that we furnish to our animals. Now FAKMERS' INSTITUTES. 145 the point I wish to make is this: the food to support the young corn will be furnished only when the conditions are favorable. Those conditions are a loose or porous soil that the air and warmth and sunlight and the gases and other useful elements can permeate and pervade. If we plant our corn before the earth has become thoroughly wanned, and rejuvenated as it were by the vitalizing force of light and heat, the seed will perhaps slowly germinate and the young plant will receive but Just enougii nourishment to cause it to spring up a few inches and then, like the tender lamb caught in a cold rain storm, it droops and withers, and for lack of nourishment it sometimes dies, and like the starved young animal it receives a shock from which it never fully recov- ers. "And what will the harvest be then?" Perhaps thirty bushels per acre, when sixty at least should and could have been grown. A good crop of corn cannot be grown without perfect and ra})iil germination and a vigorous and continued steady growth tliroughout the season. These conditions you cannot secure if you plant in a cold or wet or hard cloddy seed bed, or in other words if you plant too early. Again I would say, do not adopt the modern practice of ''marking out" with a sled or other device that will merely mark the surface. I would favor the use of the planter were it not for this same fatal defect of leaving the grain too near even or with the surface of the ground. We read in the good book that certain seed which was good in itself and which fell perhaps on good soil "perished" because it had no depth of earth. My experience of forty years active life on the farm has demonstrated that invariaUy those farmers who have taken the time to mark out their fields so as to drop the seed two or three inches below the surface were the most suc- cessful corn raisers. This may appear to be a small matter, ait it is, I assure you, worthy of your consideration. The only objection i; it requires more time to prepare the field for planting in that way. But as .ne result of a whole year's labor depends largely upon little things we cannot afford to be indiffer- ent thereto. Mark the field both ways in rows three feet and eight inches apart and plant three grains in each hill. Or better still, plant four or five grains in a hill and after it is up thin out to three stalks in a hill and then cultivate properly, and I believe our average will be very greatly increased. Kelative to cultiva- tion after planting I will be as brief and explicit as possible. For reasons al- ready assigned it is ajjparent that one of the essential objects in "corn culture" is to keep the earth in a proper condition to nourish the young plant, and this is to be done by keeping it constantly in a warm, loose or porous con- dition. The second and only remaining object being to keep under subjection the weeds and grasses that grow so abundantly during the warm months of May, June and July. If the plowing has been done at the time and in the manner described, the subsequent cultivation will be an easy and pleasant mat- ter, for the soil will be loose and free from clods, and time will not have been given for the weeds to grow. Tlie first working must be before the plant has made its appearance above ground. Kiglit here a majority of farmers make a very serious mistake. They plow and plant and then attend to other duties or pleasures for two or three weeks or longer, thinking all is well, while all the time the earth is becoming dry and hard, and the myriads of seeds in the soil are germinating and grow- ing and sending out their millions of roots in every direction to lick up or absorb tiie vitalizing elements so much needed to feed the growing corn. As 19 14G STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. before roniarkoil. corn is ;i heu\_v oi- ;,m'oss fecilor, hence it will a'lrnit of no opposition. It (leinunds and nui.st liave the undisputed occupancy of the field. And now that the warmth of June has brought the tender and beautiful blade to the light to drink from the warm humid atmosphere what cannot be fed by the soil through too tender rootlets, it is obvious that if left to itself it will be overrun and choked out by the foul and noxious weeds that infest even the best of farms. So now boys, the battle must begin in earnest. Constant, unceasing warfare must be waged and no quarter must be given these enemies of the corn crop until it is full grown and well matured. For the first and second working all that is required is to lightly stir the surface as that will be sufficient to destroy the weeds that are germinating. For this purpose, ^;er/. >Si" we should be solicitous advocates of this agent. Look upon a field where it has a rank and luxurious growth. Wo see a grand receptacle full of grow- ing elements. Bury this with the plow and we have deposited where the investment pays and dividends are sure. Upon an acre of the hirgest growth there is contained in the clover about 150 lbs. of inorganic substances and 80 1G2 STATE IVAliD OF AGRICULTURE. lbs. of nitrogen, wliilo the rools possess ;i larj^c quiintity of nitroi^en, lime, soda, nKignesiu, sulplinr, potasli, iind phosphorus, which serve as nutriment for the three classes of cultivated plants Tlie variety of its ingredients is one of its rcconnnending qualities. When utilized as a fertilizer for corn, experience teaches that it should be plowed under in the fall, so that this crop, which is of quicker growth than wheat, may receive the benefit. A few years since, having a clover field in wliicli I intended to i)lant corn, I plowed a i)art of it in the fall previous to planting and left the remainder until spring to note the result of the clover as effected by the difEerence in time of plowing. The clover that was plowed under in the fall had become partially decayed by planting time, and the corn that was planted upon that part, from the time it first made an ai)pearance until matured, was superior to the spring-plowed portion. Its growth was more healthy and luxuriant; its yield more abundant. And who will question its value for wheat, or estimate its worth? Cases almost innumerable exist where farms once yielding but a light crop have doubled — yes, trebled — in its production after clovering. If the straw is short and the berry diminutive, clover will give an ample growth and full kernel. Unlike most fertilizers, the influence of clover is not confined to the time when it is plowed under and directly aj^plied, but extends through its whole existence. While growing its roots force their way down into the soil, however compact, much farther than the modern plow, collecting nitrogen and other elements and simultaneously mellowing the ground. It also protects the gaseous sub- stances near the surface and retains them for use. There are also other ))lants that may be similarly employed, such as buckwheat, hungarian, millet, etc., which are of quicker growth, thougli of less value than clover. While at school, in my study of chemistry, I undertook to test the value of ashes as a fertilizer. Using only home manufactured, it was necessarily on a small scale. I distributed them upon the plowed ground previous to sowing wheat where they were thoroughly mixed with the soil by means of the harrow. As was expected, the experiment proved them unquestionably valuable in increasing the yield. That which grew adjacent and had a like chance, save the one consideration, was inferior both in quantity and quality. In the spring succeeding the application the field was seeded, and that portion upon which the ashes were applied was marked by a distinguishing growth of clover. In connection with other substances, or alone, they may also be employed to promote the growth and increase the yield of corn. In passing to notice commercial fertilizers, we observe some which indeed possess native value, but in consideration of their cost are not commendable to Berrien county farmers. Prominent among these are guano and lime. Guano is valuable in the abundance of its ammonia, while lime is chiefly a mechanical agent. But there are those which may be purchased and used with profit, such as bone powder and plaster. The value of the former is duly appreciated when we reflect upon its composition. The phosphate and car- bonate of lime in connection with the gelatine comprise elements required in the growth of all our grains, wheat, corn, oats, etc. It is specially valuable on land that habitually grows rank straw or stock with inferior grain. I am informed upon inquiry that it can be obtained in our county for two cents a pound, at which figure, following recommendation, it would cost about four dollars an acre. I believe there are recorded instances where its use has increased the yield of wheat five bushels to the acre; but to calculate upon four, and the present price it commands (§1.25), or less, and the farther con- FAEMEKS' INSTITUTES. 163 sideration that it serves a liJce imi'Tpose for at least Jive years, we should not hesitate in its recommendation and use. Finally, we come to notice gypsum, or as generally known, plaster. Singu- lar is the manner in which it became introduced as a fertilizer upon American soil. Dr. Franklin, who had seen its influence in jiromoting growth of crops in Europe, strove to induce American farmers to use it, but was unsuccessful. His arguments and rehearsals of facts failing, he sowed plaster upon the side of a hill sloping toward the highway in such a manner as to form with pro- digious letters, larger than Barnum employs, the words "Effects of Gypsum." Passing farmers observed the words as produced by a distinguishing growth where it was applied and immediately adopted it as a fertilizer. It grew in popular favor, and each recurring year its use has increased, until it is now more extensively used than any other commercial fertilizer. Its chief object is to form non-volatile substances by uniting with gases that would otherwise be lost. And thus did the venerable Dr. Franklin, not only by his influence in the British Parliament for the struggling colonists ; not only in his successful en- deavors to secure a treaty of alliance with the French king; but also, in the introduction of the use of plaster, confer a national favor. The agricultural history of Berrien county, in fact our whole State, is most satisfactory and highly flattering. Our struggles while in infancy, unlike many of our sister States, were unencouraged, our lands unlauded. But for forty years our progress has been steady and sure. By better farming and liberal fertilizing there has been an increasing yield. Our crops have never failed, and as a rich reward for our labors our barns have been filled with plenty. Who can calculate the worth of a State composed of such counties, or com- pute the resources of a republic comprising similar States? They are verily beyond computation. Attention and care will insure in the future, as now, an annual abundant harvest; then will improvement continue; then will our homes, as now, be homes of plenty and comfort; then will our fruits, as now, multiply the sails of commerce, and feed starving millions; then will we, hav- ing fostered education and guarded morality, he a prosperous, intelligent, and liappxj people, DISCUSSION. Mr. . — What is the value of salt as a fertilizer? Mr. Gillette. — Salt does not enter into chemical composition ; it is good in dry seasons for drawing moisture. Mr. Fox. — When shall plaster be sowed? Mr. Gillette. — Would sow early in spring when the ground is moist. Mr. Clark. — Is there any loss from evaporation of manures applied to the surface? It gives the best effect. Mr. I. H. Gillette said he thought much of the value of the manure to be lost. Mr. Glydden said he knew the reverse of this to be true. Mr. Butler gave an experience of winter spreading of manure where he ob- tained extraordinary good results. The Institute passed resolutions of thanks to those who furnished the music and to the Professors from the Agricultural College. Prof. Carpenter responded on behalf of the College. 164 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. MASON INSTITUTE. This Institute, the last of the series, though not attended by as large a number as most of the others, was deemed exceedingly satisfactory and profita- ble by those attending it. It commenced on Thursday evening, January 29th. After the usual preliminary exercises, Mr. A. F. Wood, who presided over the Institute, gave the following OPENING ADDRESS. In behalf of the State Board of Agriculture we greet you. Meeting as we do for the purpose of mental and social improvement, it is our desire that this Institute may prove a credit to ourselves and the community. For a long time it had been felt that business men, especially those engaged in agriculture, knew too little of each other ; the masses have been ignorant of what has been done at the Agricultural College, and the faculty was not conversant with the needs of the farmer. Consequently, in 1875 Dr. Kedzie made a proposition to hold agricultural institutes. The State board considered the matter, appointed a committee, and the result was the appointing of six institutes in various parts of the State, held in 1876. The result was so satisfactory that it has been con- tinued and the same number held each year to the present time. Although we were one of the first to apply it was thought they might accom- plish more good at other places, as the college is located in this county ; but our application this year was favorably considered, and an appointment made. I addition to these, a large number of local institutes have been held. What has been the result? It has given members of the College faculty a large acquaintance over the State, increased the popularity and growth of the College^ and they have brought thousands together to hear and discuss matters pertain- ing to their business, thereby gaining new ideas, and stimulating and bringing into action knowledge that has lain dormant, helping the farmer and other classes to improve and realize their true position. Improvement should always be our motto. We should not be satisfied with producing ten or fifteen bush- els of wheat to the acre, when by draining, care, and a little different culture, we could double that amount with but a small outlay. So with beef — some selling and Avorth four and five cents per pound, while others, and a large amount, not bringing more than tAvo to three cents, and the latter oftentimes costing the most to produce. Also of wool ; it costs more tosui")port the nature of same sheep than others, while another might clip double the amount of wool on the same expense of keeping. If the above are facts, we should not be satisfied and stay at home, continuing such unsatisfactory returns, but should make ourselves familiar with the best results by studying books and periodicals, attending institutes, or any other gatherings where mind is brought in contact with mind for improvement; also by being familiar with those that make suc- cesses. Not only may we learn financially better how to manage our business, but we must improve mentally — capable of enjoying more and of being more useful. It has assisted persons to cultivate the habit of expressing their opin- ions and filling places of trust and honor, much to the benefit of the world, that otherwise would have been filled by professional men not suitable to look after the majority of wants. I have only to refer you to our legislative halls. FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 165 where they are largely filled witli professional men. This is due mainly to the farmers themselves, for when one of their number is selected, popularity is considered and oftentimes the power of clearly and concisely putting thoughts together in words or on paper is out of their line, and the most they can do is to fill the chair and vote with the party. The result is largely a failure. If it was in humsn power to be experts in the different callings and know the neces- sity of all, we would ask for nothing more than the present plan ; but as each is interested in his own particular branch, what we ask is for the farmer to realize the want, and cultivate the expression of thought, as well as the soil. Persistent effort will assist in overcoming the deficiency; and if a person is interested, the complete success of any undertaking is of the utmost importance to that individual, and every obstacle surmounted is one step higher. In greeting the members present of the faculty of the College, those from abroad and the citizens of our own county, we welcome you all, and hope that you may feel at home, be free to ask questions, and express your views on any subjects that may come up for discussion ; and to the ladies in particular, you are welcome. It is by your effort and encouragement that many of us are what we are, and your presence will aid us the more. May the time not be far off when preparations may be made so that our daughters may share an equfl chance in the land grant and other appropriations at the Agricultural College. With the exception of a poem entitled ''Time's Changes," by Miss E. M. Gunnison, the other papers on the programme for the first evening session were not forthcoming, but a somewhat extended discussion was had on the subject of ''Agricultural Societies." A paper had been expected on this sub- ject from Mr. Ben. B. Baker, Secretary of the Central Michigan Agricultural Societv. FRIDAY FORENOON SESSION was opened with a paper from Mr. F. A. Gulley, foreman of the Horticultural Department of the Agricultural College, on "Farm Economy." (See lectures given at more than one Institute.) Miss Nettie B. Wood, of Mason, read an essay on CIECUMSTANCES. The Avriter set forth the idea that a strong will was needful in order that we might not be the creatures but the masters of circumstances ; that the weak are apt to become discouraged and allow circumstances to control them. In applying the subject to farmers and their work the writer said : The farmer has much with which to contend, and what he earns is largely due to the sweat of his brow. Proper planning and arranging the work may lighten the labor of execution, but work and hard work must be done ere it is completed. Why not? Work is the engine that draws the car of success. Command of one's self and of many surrounding circumstances is indispensable. If mis- fortune overtakes you, do not despair; if crops fail for some reason beyond jonr control, try again, but if the failure was due to yourself, allow experience to assert her supremacy and improve over the manner and time of previously performing the operation ; if your home surroundings are not as pleasant as they ouglit to be, improve them. I think that there is not a farmer's home 1G6 STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. Avithont a chance for iniprovcnient, but defects in some are more noticeable than in others. Provided you luive the will, much can be accomplished in the odd Sjiells, and the employment of these tell upon the completion of necessary work as well as upon reputation. One who is shifting witli the circumstances will betake himself the lirst opportunity to the nearest town and help make a crowd at the street-corners, or will go to a neighbor's and there waste both his own and their time. Wishing to obtain local news, he will not be on the look- out to gather the grains of knowledge that would assist in making his life use- ful and his business a success. Some people seem to never profit by e\'i)eri- ence ; others will not learn by precept, but insist on being a pupil in the school, and after carelessly, yes recklessly, going forward, they see their folly and pronounce experience a dear teacher. Matthews tells us that experience is of two kinds : " That gained from books is learning, that from actual life is wisdom." Knowledge gained from books is beneficial only as it assists in the discipline of the mind and works in har- mony with the hands. Wisdom covers judgment, discretion, skill, and dex- terity, and is learned by contact with the world. Such intercourse sharpens the perceptive faculties and drives away the thought that your ills are worse than those of any other human being. Those who look upon the bright side of life will seek and find the many pleasures that result from a contented mind. No one is surrounded by the works of nature to the extent of the farmer. His eyes can behold the sky above with the varied and changeable clouds, the earth beneath with its hill and dale and ever babbling brook, and yet not realize the beauties until the painter and poet describe them with the brush and pen. Hon. Wm. Ball of Hamburg, Livingston Co., read the following paper on "how shall AVE IMPKOVE OUR STOCK?" Mr. President, Fellow Farmers and Stock Growers : — In undertak- ing to systematically and instructively treat upon this very important and difficult subject I must be allowed to say that I feel my inability to discuss it in a manner worthy of its demands. My object, however, will be attained if it shall be the means of calling the attention of the farmer and stock grower to the great importance connected with the subject either scientifically or pecuniarily. If any one is in doubt in regard to the need of better cattle, better sheep, better swine, better horses, or any other class of farm stock, he may get into his wagon or sleigh and drive through the farming communities in the differ- ent counties of this State and the doubt will give way to a thorough conviction that a very great improvement is necessary in all branches of stock culture before the farmer and breeder realize an adequate return for the care and expense of rearing animals to maturity or for market. In this age of the world much is being written and published on the subject under discussion. Farmers' clubs and institutes are organized and in good working order throughout the State, and are a great means of disseminating practical knowledge yearly. The granges of the nation are doing, a noble work by bringing farmers and their families together in a social capacity, elevating and improving in its tendency, by the discussions of the various subjects con- nected with agriculture and its kindred relations; controlling and conducting to a certain extent the sale and purchase of the products and needs of the farm, as well as creating a desire for improvement in his varied industries. With all FARMERS' INSTITUTES. 167 these means thrown in our way, it seems as though there is nothing wanting as a stimukis for every farmer to wake up to his own interests. In order to live (by a wise arrangement) most of the human family have to perform piiysical as well as mental labor. The farmer, particularly, is a man of toil, and in too many instances it is toil without thought, unless it be thoughts of dissatisfaction with his calling. Most if not all farmers raise stock. They must have cows for milk and but- ter, swine for meat, sheep for wool and mutton, and horses for labor. Now, let the different breeds or kinds of animals, which the farmer raises, be of a poor breed or quality, they consume a certain amount of food, care, and time, in order that they may live, and the return is usually commensurate with the breed and manner in whi